See also:

• SURGERY
• SURGERY (Fr. chirurgie, from Gr. Xetpoupyfa, i.e. hand-work)

SURGERY (Fr. chirurgie, from Gr. Xetpoupyfa, i.e. See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand-See also:

• WORK

work)  , the profession and See also:

• ART

art of the surgeon (chirurgien), connected specially with the cure of diseases or injuries by operative See also:

• MANUAL

manual and instrumental treatment . See also:

• HISTORY

History.—See also:

• SURGERY
• SURGERY (Fr. chirurgie, from Gr. Xetpoupyfa, i.e. hand-work)

Surgery in all countries is as old as human needs . A certain skill in the stanching of See also:

• BLOOD

blood, the extraction of arrows, the binding up of wounds, the supporting of broken limbs by splints, and the like, together with an instinctive reliance on the healing See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of the tissues, has been See also:

• COMMON

common to men everywhere . In both branches of the Indo-See also:

• EUROPEAN

European stock surgical practice (as well as medical) reached a high degree of perfection at a very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . It is a See also:

• MATTER

matter of controversy whether the Greeks got their See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine (or any of it) from the See also:

• HINDUS

Hindus (through the See also:

• MEDIUM

medium of the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian priesthood), or whether the Hindus owed that high degree of medical and surgical knowledge and skill which is reflected in Charaka (1st See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century A.D.) and Susruta (2nd century) (commentators of uncertain date on the Yajur-Veda) to their contact with Western See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization after the See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

campaigns of See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander . The See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence in favour of the former view is ably stated by See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

Wise in the Introduction to his History of Medicine Among the Asiatics (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1868) . The See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence between the Susruta and the Hippocratic Collection is closest in the sections See also:

• RELATING

relating to the See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

ethics of medical practice; the description, also, of lithotomy in the former agrees almost exactly with the See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the Alexandrian practice as given by See also:

• CELSUS (c. A.D. 178)

Celsus . But there are certainly some dexterous operations described in Susruta (such as the rhinoplastic) which were of native invention; the elaborate and lofty ethical See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code appears to be of pure Brahmanical origin; and the copious materia medica (which included See also:

• ARSENIC (symbol As, atomic weight 75.0)

arsenic, See also:

• MERCURY
• MERCURY (MERCU1uus)
• MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight = 2oo)

mercury, See also:

• ZINC

zinc, and many other substances of permanent value) does not contain a single See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign source . There is evidence also (in, See also:

• ARRIAN (FLAvrus ARRIANUS)

Arrian, See also:

• STRABO (born c. 63 n.c.)

Strabo and other writers) that the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East enjoyed a proverbial reputation for medical and surgical See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom at the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of Alexander's invasion . We may give the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, then, to the Eastern See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Indo-European stock in a See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch of the rise of surgery, leaving as insoluble the question of the date of the See also:

• SANSKRIT

Sanskrit compendiums or compilations which pass under the names of two representative persons, Charaka and Susruta (the See also:

• DATES

dates assigned to these ranging as widely as 50o years on each See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian era) . The Susruta speaks throughout of a single class of practitioners who undertook both surgical and medical cases . Nor were Hlndu. there any fixed degrees or orders of skill within the profession; even lithotomy, which at See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria was assigned to specialists, was to be undertaken by any one, the leave of the See also:

• RAJA

raja having been first obtained .

The only distinction recognized between medicine and surgery was in the inferior See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of barbers, See also:

• NAIL (O. Eng. naegal, cf. Dutch, Ger., Swed. nagel; the word is also related to Lat. unguis, Gr. ovu, Sans. nakhas)

nail-trimmers, See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear-borers, tooth-drawers and phlebotomists, who were outside the Brahmanical See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste . Susruta describes more than one See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred-surgical See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments, made of See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel . They should have See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good handles and See also:

• FIRM

firm See also:

• JOINTS

joints, be well polished, and See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp enough to See also:

• DIVIDE

divide a See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair; they should be perfectly clean, and kept in See also:

• FLANNEL

flannel in a wooden See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box . They included various shapes of scalpels, bistouries, lancets, scarifiers, saws, See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone-nippers, See also:

• SCISSORS

scissors, trocars and needles . There were also See also:

• BLUNT, JOHN HENRY (1823–1884)
• BLUNT, JOHN JAMES (1794–1855)
• BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN (184o— )

blunt hooks, loops, probes (including a See also:

• CAUSTIC (Gr. rcavvraubs, burning)

caustic-holder), See also:

• DIRECTORS

directors, sounds, scoops and forceps (for polypi, &c.), as well as catheters, syringes, a rectal See also:

• SPECULUM

speculum and bougies . There were fourteen varieties of bandage . The favourite See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of splint was made of thin slips of See also:

• BAMBOO

bamboo boundtogether with See also:

• STRING

string and cut to the length required . Wise says that he had frequently used " this admirable splint," particularly for fractures of the thigh, humerus, See also:

• RADIUS

radius and ulna, and it was subsequently adopted in the See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army under the name of the " patent rattan-See also:

• CANE

cane splint." Fractures were diagnosed, among other signs, by crepitus . Dislocations were elaborately classified, and the See also:

• DIFFERENTIAL

differential diagnosis given; the treatment was by See also:

• TRACTION (Lat. trahere, to draw)

traction and countertraction, circumduction and other dexterous manipulation . Wounds were divided into incised, punctured, lacerated, contused, &c . Cuts of the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head and See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face were sewed . Skill in extracting foreign bodies was carried to a See also:

• GREAT

great height, the magnet being used for See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron particles under certain specified circumstances .

Inflammations were treated by the usual antiphlogistic regimen and appliances; venesection was practised at several other points besides the See also:

• BEND

bend of the See also:

• ELBOW

elbow; leeches were more often resorted to than the See also:

• LANCET (from Fr. lancette, dim. of lance, lance)

lancet; See also:

• CUPPING

cupping also was in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general use . Poulticing, fomenting and the like were done as at See also:

• PRESENT

present . Amputation was done now and then, notwithstanding the want of a good See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control over the See also:

• HAEMORRHAGE (Gr. atµa, blood, and prryvvvac, to burst)

haemorrhage; boiling oil was applied to the stump, with pressure by means of a See also:

• CUP (in O.E. cuppe; generally taken to be from Late Lat. cuppa, a variant of Lat. cupa, a cask, cf. Gr. KuaeXXov)

cup-formed bandage, See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch being sometimes added . Tumours and enlarged lymphatic glands were cut out, and an arsenical salve applied to the raw surfaces to prevent recurrence . Abdominal See also:

• DROPSY (contracted from the old word hydropisy, derived from the Gr. 154w¢; i Swp, water, and appearance)

dropsy and hydrocele were treated by tapping with a trocar; and varieties of See also:

• HERNIA (Lat. hernia, perhaps from Gr. Epvos, a sprout)

hernia were understood, omental hernia being removed by operation on the scrotum . Aneurisms were known, but not treated; the use of the ligature on the continuity of an artery, as well as on the cut end of it in a flap, is the one thing that a See also:

• MODERN

modern surgeon will See also:

• MISS

miss somewhat noticeably in the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient surgery of the Hindus; and the See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason of their backwardness in that matter was doubtless their want of familiarity with the course of the See also:

• ARTERIES (Gr. ap-rnpia, probably from a"spew, to raise, but popularly connected by the ancients with ai7P, air)

arteries and with the arterial circulation . Besides the operation already mentioned, the See also:

• ABDOMEN (a Latin word, either from abdere, to hide, or from a form adipomen, from adeps, fat)

abdomen was opened by a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short incision below the umbilicus slightly to the See also:

• LEFT

left of the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle See also:

• LINE

line for the purpose of removing intestinal concretions or other obstruction (laparotomy) . Only a small segment of the bowel was exposed at one time; the See also:

• CONCRETION

concretion when found was removed, the See also:

• INTESTINE (Lat. intestinus, internal, usually in neuter plural intestina. from intus, within)

intestine stitched together again, anointed with See also:

• GHEE (Hindostani ghi)

ghee and See also:

• HONEY (Chin. me ; Sansk. madhu, mead, honey; cf. A.S. medo, medu, mead; Gr. p Xt, in which 0 or b is changed into X; Lat. mel ; Fr. miel ; A.S. hung ; Ger. Honig)

honey, and returned into the cavity . Lithotomy was practised, without the See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff . There was a plastic operation for the restoration of the See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose, the skin being taken from the cheek adjoining, and the vascularity kept up by a See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge of See also:

• TISSUE (Fr. tissu, tissue, participle of tisser, Lat. texere, to weave)

tissue . The ophthalmic surgery included extraction of See also:

• CATARACT (from the Lat. form cataracta of the Gr. Karapplucrgss, a floodgate, or waterfall, properly something which rushes down)

cataract . Obstetric operations were various, including caesarean See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section and crushing the foetus .

The medication and constitutional treatment in surgical cases were in keeping with the general care and elaborateness of their practice, and with the copiousness of their materia medica . Ointments and other See also:

• EXTERNAL

external applications had usually a basis of ghee (or clarified See also:

• BUTTER (Lat. butyrum, Gr. 0obrvpov, apparently connected with $ous, cow, and rvpbs, cheese, but, according to the New English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin)

butter), and contained, among other things, such metals as arsenic, zinc, See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper, mercury and sulphate of iron . For every emergency and every known form of disease there were elaborate and See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute directions in thesastras, which were taught by the physician-priests to the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young aspirants . See also:

• BOOK

Book learning was considered of no use without experience and manual skill in operations; the different surgical operations were shown to the student upon See also:

• WAX

wax spread on a See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board, on gourds, cucumbers and other soft fruits; tapping and puncturing were practised on a leathern bag filled with See also:

• WATER

water or soft mud; scarifications and bleeding on the fresh hides of animals from which the hair had been removed ; puncturing and lancing upon the hollow stalks of water-lilies or the vessels of dead animals; bandaging was practised on flexible See also:

• MODELS

models of the human See also:

• BODY

body; sutures on See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather and See also:

• CLOTH

cloth; the plastic operations on dead animals; and the application of caustics and cauteries on living animals . A knowledge of See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

anatomy was held to be necessary, but it does not appear that it was systematically acquired by See also:

• DISSECTION (from Lat. dissecare, to cut apart)

dissection . Superstitions and theurgic ideas were diligently kept up so as to impress the vulgar . The whole body of teaching, itself the slow growth of much See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close observation and profound thinking during the vigorous period of Indo-See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan progress, was given out in later times as a See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation from See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven, and as resting upon an See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute authority . Pathological principles were not wanting, but they were derived from a purely arbitrary or conventional See also:

• PHYSIOLOGY (from Gr. 4 i s, nature, and koyos, discourse)

physiology (See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind, bile and phlegm); and the whole elaborate fabric of rules and directions, great though its utility must have been for many generations, was without the quickening power of reason and freedom, and became inevitably stiff and decrepit . The See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese appear to have been far behind the Hindus in their knowledge of medicine and surgery, notwithstanding that See also:

• CHINA

China profited at the same time as See also:

• TIBET, or THIBET

Tibet by Chinese. the missionary See also:

• PROPAGATION

propagation of See also:

• BUDDHISM

Buddhism . Surgery in particular had hardly See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed among them beyond the merest rudiments, owing to their religious respect for dead bodies and their unwillingness to draw blood or otherwise interfere with the living structure . Their anatomy and physiology have been from the earliest times unusually fanciful, and their surgical practice has consisted almost entirely of external applications . Tumours and boils were treated by scarifications or incisions .

The distinctive Chinese surgical invention is See also:

• ACUPUNCTURE (from Lat. acus, a needle, and pungere, to prick)

acupuncture, or the insertion of See also:

• FINE

fine needles, of hardened See also:

• SILVER

silver or See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold, for an See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch or more (with a twisting See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion) into the seats of See also:

• PAIN (from Lat. poena, Gr. robin, penalty, that which must be paid: O. Fr. peine)
• PAIN, BARRY (1867– )

pain or inflammation . Wise says that " the See also:

• NEEDLE (O. Eng. ncedl; the word appears in various forms in Teutonic languages, Ger. Nadel, Dutch naal, the root being ne-, to sew, cf. Ger. nahen, and probably Lat. nere, to spin, Gr. vi)ats, spinning)

needle is allowed to remain in that See also:

• PART

part several minutes, or in some cases of See also:

• NEURALGIA (Gr. veiipov, nerve, and iXyos, pain)

neuralgia for days, with great See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage See also:

• RHEUMATISM (from Gr. /56µa, flux)

rheumatism and chronic See also:

• GOUT

gout were among the localized pains so treated . There are 367 points specified where needles may be inserted without injuring great vessels and vital See also:

• ORGANS

organs . Cupping-vessels made of cow-See also:

• HORN
• HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu; cf. Gr. Kipas)
• HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor, trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno)
• HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742)
• HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT

horn have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs . On monuments and the walls of temples See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt/ay . are figures of patients bandaged, or undergoing operation at the hands of surgeons . In museum collections of Egyptian antiquities there are lancets, forceps, knives, probes, scissors, &c . See also:

• EBERS, GEORG MORITZ (1837-1898)

Ebers interprets a passage in the See also:

• PAPYRUS

papyrus discovered by him as relating to the operation of cataract . Surgical instruments for the ear are figured, and artificial See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth have been found in mummies . Mummies have also been found with well-set fractures . See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus describes Egypt, notwithstanding its fine See also:

• CLIMATE

climate, as being full of medical practitioners, who were all " specialists." The ophthalmic surgeons were celebrated, and practised at the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of See also:

• CYRUS
• CYRUS (Gr. KDpos; Pers. Kuru-sh; Babyl. Kurash; Hebr. Koresh)

Cyrus . See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek Surgery.—As in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of the Sanskrit medical writings, the earliest Greek compendiums on surgery See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness See also:

• CREEK
• CREEK (Mid. Eng. crike or creke, common to many N. European languages)

Creek, to a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long organic growth of knowledge and skill through many generations .

In the Homeric picture of society the surgery is that of the battlefield, and it is of the most meagre See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind . See also:

• ACHILLES
• ACHILLES (Gr. 'AxtXXeus)

Achilles is concerned about the restoration to See also:

• HEALTH

health of Machaon for the reason that his skill in cutting out darts and applying salves to wounds was not the least valuable service that a See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero could render to the Greek See also:

• HOST

host . Machaon probably represents an See also:

• AMATEUR (Lat. amator, lover)

amateur, whose See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste had led him, as it did See also:

• MELAMPUS

Melampus, to converse with See also:

• CENTAURS

centaurs and to glean some of their traditional wisdom . Between that See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of civilization and the date of the first Greek See also:

• TREATISES

treatises there had been a long See also:

• INTERVAL

interval of See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual progress . The surgery of the Hippocratic Collection (See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age' of See also:

• PERICLES (49o-429 B.C.)

Pericles) bears every evidence of finish and elaboration . The two treatises on Hippocratic fractures and on dislocations respectively are hardly Saraery, surpassed in some ways by the writings of the present See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical age . Of the four dislocations of the See also:

• SHOULDER (in O.E. sculder, cognate with Ger. Schulter, Dutch schouder, Swed. skuldra, &c; the root is unknown)

shoulder the displacement downwards into the axilla is given as the only one at all common . The two most usual dislocations of the femur were backwards on to the dorsum ilii and forwards on to the obturator region . Fractures of the spinous processes of the vertebrae are described, and caution advised against trusting those who would magnify that injury into fracture of the spine itself . Tubercles (e^bhara) are given as one of the causes of See also:

• SPINAL

spinal curvature, an anticipation of See also:

• POTT, AUGUST FRIEDRICH (1802–1887)
• POTT, PERCIVALL (1714–1788)

Pott's diagnosis . In all matters of treatment there was the same fertility of resource as in the See also:

• HINDU

Hindu practice; the most noteworthy point is that shortening was by many regarded as inevitable after See also:

• SIMPLE

simple fracture of the femur . Fractures and dislocations were the most See also:

• COMPLETE

complete chapters of the Hippocratic surgery; the whole See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine and See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical art of them had arisen (like See also:

• SCULPTURE
• SCULPTURE (Lat. sculptura, from sculpere, to carve, cognate with Gr. yXb4ew)

sculpture) with no help from dissection, and obviously owed its excellence to the opportunities of the See also:

• PALAESTRA (Gr. aaXaiarpa)

palaestra .

The next most elaborate See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter is that on wounds and injuries of the head, which refers them to a minute subdivision, and includes the depressed fracture and the contrecoup . Trephining was the measure most commonly resorted to, even where there was no See also:

• COMPRESSION

compression . Numerous forms of wounds and injuries of other parts are specified . Ruptures, piles, rectal polypi, See also:

• FISTULA (Lat. for a pipe or tube)

fistula in ano and prolapsus See also:

• ANI (anc. Abnicum)

ani were among the other conditions treated . The amputation or excision of tumours does not appear to have been undertaken so freely as in Hindu 'surgical practice; nor was lithotomy performed except by a specially See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person now and then . The diagnosis of See also:

• EMPYEMA (from Gr. iv, within, and srvov, pus)

empyema was known, and the treatment of it was by an incision in the intercostal space and evacuation of the pus . Among their instruments were forceps, probes, directors, syringes, rectal speculum, catheter and various kinds of cautery . Between the Hippocratic era and the See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding of the school of Alexandria (about 300 B.C.) there is nothing of surgical _~ progress to dwell upon . The Alexandrian See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch Al Period . , . exandrian stands out prominently by reason of the enthusiastic cultivation of human anatomy—there are allegations also of See also:

• VIVISECTION

vivisection—at the hands of Herophilus (335-280 B.C.) and Erasistratus (28o B.c.) . The substance of this See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement appears to have been precision of diagnosis (not unattended with pedantic minuteness), boldness of operative See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure, sub-See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of practice into. a number of specialities, but hardly a single addition to the stock of physiological or pathological ideas, or even to the traditional wisdom of the Hippocratic time .

" The surgeons of the Alexandrian school were all distinguished by the nicety and complexity of their dressings and bandagings, of which they invented a great variety." Herophilus boldly used the See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

knife even on See also:

• INTERNAL

internal organs such as the See also:

• LIVER (O. Eng. lifer; cf. cognate forms, Dutch lever, Ger. Leber, Swed. lefver, &c.; the O. H. Ger. forms are libara, lipora, &c.; the Teut. word has been connected with Gr. i'prap and Lat. jecur)

liver and See also:

• SPLEEN (Gr. o-1rXilv)

spleen, which latter he regarded " as of little consequence in the See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal See also:

• ECONOMY

economy." He treated retention of urine by a particular kind of catheter, which long See also:

• BORE

bore his name . Lithotomy was much practised by a few specialists, and one of them (Ammonius Lithotomos, 287 B.C.) is said to have used an See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument for breaking the See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone in the See also:

• BLADDER (from A.S. blaeddre, connected with bl¢wan, to blow, cf. Ger. blase)

bladder into several pieces when it was too ' large to. remove whole . A sinister See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of the time is that concerning See also:

• ANTIOCHUS

Antiochus, son of Alexander, See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of See also:

• SYRIA

Syria (15o B.C.), who was done to See also:

• DEATH

death by the lithotomists when he was ten years old, under the pretence that he had stone in the bladder, the instigator of the See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime being his See also:

• GUARDIAN

guardian and supplanter See also:

• DIODOTUS

Diodotus . The See also:

• TREATISE

treatise of Celsus, De re medica (reign of See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus), reflects the state of surgery in the ancient See also:

• WORLD

world for a period of several centuries: it is the best See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record, of the Alexandrian practice itself, and it may be taken to stand for the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman practice of the period following . Great See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

jealousy of Greek medicine and surgery was expressed by many of the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans of the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic, notably by See also:

• CATO, DIONYSIUS
• CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (234—149 B.c.)
• CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (95-46 B.c.)
• CATO, PUBLIUS VALERIUS

Cato the See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

Elder (234-149 B.C.), who himself practised on his See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate according to the native traditions . His medical observations are given in De re rustica . In reducing_ dislocations he made use of the following See also:

• INCANTATION

incantation: " Huat hanat ista pista sista dainiato damnaustra." The first Greek surgeon who established himself in See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome is said to have been Archagathus, whose fondness for the knife and cautery at length led to his See also:

• EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere)

expulsion by the populace . It was in the person of See also:

• ASCLEPIADES

Asclepiades, the contemporary and friend of See also:

• CICERO

Cicero, that the Hellenic medical practice acquired a permanent footing in Rome . He confined his practice mostly to medicine, but he is credited with practising the operation oftracheotomy . He is one of those whom See also:

• TERTULLIAN (c. 155-c. 222)

Tertullian quotes as practising vivisections for the gratification of their curiosity (De anima, 15) . The' next figure in the surgical history is Celsus, who devotes the 7th and 8th books of his De re medial. exclusively See also:

• TOY
• TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL (1836– )

toy surgery . There is not much in these beyond the precepts of the Brahmanicalsastras Celsus. and the See also:

• MAXIMS, LEGAL

maxims and rules of Greek surgery .

Plastic operations for the 'restoration of the nose, lips and ears are described at' some length, as well as the treatment of hernia by taxis and operation ; in the latter it was recommended to apply the actual cautery to the See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal after the hernia had been returned . The celebrated description of lithotomy is that of the operation as practised long before in See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India and at Alexandria . The treatment of sinuses in various regions is dwelt upon, and in the case of sinuses of . the thoracic . See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall resection of the See also:

• RIB (from 0. Eng. ribb; the word appears' in many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Rippe, Swed. reb)

rib is mentioned . Trephining has the same prominent place assigned to it as in the Greek surgery . The resources of contemporary surgery may be estimated by the fact that subcutaneous urethrotomy was practised when the urethra was blocked by a calculus . Amputation of an extremity is described in detail for the first time in surgical literature . Mention is made of a variety of ophthalmic operations, which were done by specialists after the Alexandrian See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion . See also:

• GALEN (or GALENUS), CLAUDIUS
• GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD, FREIHERR VON (16o6-1678)

Galen's practice of surgery was mostly in the early part of his career (b . A.D . 130), and there is little of See also:

• SPECIAL

special surgical See also:

• INTEREST

interest in his writings, great as their importance (See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

Palm is for anatomy, physiology and the general doctrines of disease . Among the operations credited to him are resection of a portion of the sternum for See also:

• CARIES

caries and ligature of the temporal artery . It may be assumed that surgical practice was in a flourishing See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition all through the period of the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire from the accounts preserved by Oribasius of the great surgeons Antyllus, Leonides, See also:

• RUFUS, GAIUS VALGIUS
• RUFUS, LUCIUS VARIUS (c 74—14 B.c.)

Rufus and See also:

• HELIODORUS

Heliodorus .

Antyllus (A.D . 300} is claimed by Haser as one of the greatest of the world's surgeons; he had an operation for Roman aneurism (tying the artery above and below the See also:

• SAC

sac, and. evacuating its contents), for cataract, for the cure of See also:

• STAMMERING, or STUTTERING

stammering; and he treated contractures by something like tenotomy . Rufus and Heliodorus are said to have practised torsion for the See also:

• ARREST (Fr. arrester, arreeter, to stop or stay)

arrest of haemorrhage; but in later periods both that and the ligature appear to have given way to the actual cautery . Haser speaks of the operation for scrotal hernia attributed to Heliodorus as " a brilliant example of the surgical skill during' the empire." The same surgeon treated stricture of the urethra by internal section . Both Leonides and Antyllus removed glandular swellings of the See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck (strumae) ; the latter ligatured vessels before cutting them, and gives directions for avoiding the See also:

• CAROTID

carotid artery and jugular vein . Flap-amputations were practised by Leonides and Heliodorus . But perhaps the most striking See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration of the advanced surgery of the period is the freedom with which bones were resected, including the long bones, the See also:

• LOWER

lower See also:

• JAW (Mid. Eng. jawe, jowe and geowe, O. Eng. cheowan, connected with " chaw " and " chew," and in form with " jowl ")

jaw and the upper jaw . Whatever progress or decadence surgery may have experienced during the next three centuries is summed up in the authoritative See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine. treatise of See also:

• PAULUS
• PAULUS (older form PAur.Lus), LUCIUS AEMILIUS
• PAULUS, HEINRICH

Paulus of See also:

• AEGINA
• AEGINA (EGINA or ENGIA)

Aegina (A.D . 65o) . Of his seven books the. See also:

• SIXTH

sixth is entirely devoted to operative surgery, and the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth is largely occupied with surgical diseases . The importance of Paulus for surgical history during several centuries on each side of his own period will appear from the following remarks of See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis See also:

• ADAMS
• ADAMS, ANDREW LEITH (1827-1882)
• ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS (1807-1886)
• ADAMS, HENRY (1838— )
• ADAMS, HENRY CARTER (1852— )
• ADAMS, HERBERT (i858— )
• ADAMS, HERBERT BAXTER (1850—1901)
• ADAMS, JOHN (1735–1826)
• ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY (1767-1848)
• ADAMS, SAMUEL (1722-1803)
• ADAMS, THOMAS (d. c. 1655)
• ADAMS, WILLIAM (d. 162o)

Adams (1796-1861) in his See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation and commentary (ii . 247): " This book (bk. vi.) contains the most complete See also:

• SYSTEM

system of operative surgery which has come down to us from ancient times .

. Haly Abbas (d . A.D . 994) in the 9th book of his Practica copies almost everything from Paulus . Albucasis [Abulcasis] (loth century A.D.) gives more See also:

• ORIGINAL

original matter on surgery than any other Arabian author, and yet, as will be seen from our commentary, he isindebted for whole chapters to Paulus . In the Continens of Rhases, that See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious repository of ancient opinions on medical subjects, if there be any surgical See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information not to be found in our author it is mostly derived from Antyllus and Archigenes . As to the other authorities, although we will occasionally have to explain their opinions upon particular subjects, no one has treated of surgery in a systematical manner; fig even See also:

• AVICENNA

Avicenna, who treats so fully of everything else connected with medicine, is defective in his accounts of surgical operations; and the descriptions which he does give of them are almost all borrowed from our author . The accounts of fractures and dislocations given by See also:

• HIPPOCRATES

Hippocrates and his commentator Galen may be pronounced almost complete; but the information which they See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply upon most other surgical subjects is scanty." Paulus' sixth book, with the valuable commentary of Adams; brings the whole surgery of the ancient world to a See also:

• FOCUS (Latin for " hearth " or " fireplace ")

focus . Paulus is credited with the principle of See also:

• LOCAL

local depletion as against' general, with the lateral operation for stone instead of the mesial and with understanding the merits of a See also:

• FREE

free external incision and a limited internal, with the diagnosis of aneurism by See also:

• ANASTOMOSIS (a Greek word in which the second o is long, from avaaroµovv, to furnish with a mouth or outlet)

anastomosis,rwith an operation for aneurism like that of Antyllus, with amputation of the cancerous See also:

• BREAST (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. the Ger. Brust, possibly connected with an O. Sax. brustian, to bud)

breast by See also:

• CRUCIAL (from Lat. crux, a cross)

crucial incision, and with the treatment of fractured patella . The Arabians have hardly any greater merit in medicine than that of preserving intact the See also:

• BEQUEST (from 0. Eng. becwethan, to declare or express in words; cf. " quoth ")

bequest of the 'ancient world . Arabian . To surgery in particular their services are small first, because their See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion proscribed the practice of anatomy, and, secondly, because it was a characteristic of their See also:

• RACE

race to accept with equanimity the sufferings that See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell to them, and to decline the means of alleviation . The great mines of the Arabian school, Avicenna (98o-1o37) and See also:

• AVERROES [Abul - Walid Muhammad ibn - Ahmad Ibn-Muhammad ibn-Rushd] (1126-1198)

Averroes (1126-1198), are altogether unimportant for surgery .

Their one distinctively surgical writer was Abulcasim (d . 1122), who is chiefly celebrated for his free use of the actual cautery and of caustics . He showed a good See also:

• DEAL

deal of See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character in declining to operate on See also:

• GOITRE (from Lat. guttur, the throat; synonyms, Bronchocele, Derbyshire Neck)

goitre, in resorting to See also:

• TRACHEOTOMY

tracheotomy but sparingly, in refusing to meddle with See also:

• CANCER (" THE CRAB ")
• CANCER, LUIS (d. 1549)
• CANCER, or CARCINOMA (from Lat. cancer, Gr. KapKivwga, an eating ulcer)

cancer, and in evacuating large abscesses by degrees . For the five hundred years following the See also:

• WORK

work of Paulus of Aegina there is nothing to record but the names of a few See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval. practitioners at the court and of imitators or com- pilers . Meanwhile in western See also:

• EUROPE

Europe (apart from the Saracen civilization) a medical school had grown up at See also:

• SALERNO (anc. Salernum)

Salerno, which in the Toth century had already become famous . From it issued the Regimen salernitanum, a work used by the laity for several centuries, and the Compendium salernitanum, which circulated among the profession . The decline of the school dates from the founding of a university at See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples in 1224 . In its best period princes and nobles' resorted to it for treatment from all parts of Europe . The hotel dieu of See also:

• LYONS
• LYONS (Fr. Lyon)
• LYONS, COUNCILS OF
• LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858)
• LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817–1887)

Lyons had been founded in 56o, and that of See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris a century later . The school of See also:

• MONTPELLIER

Montpellier was founded in 1025, and became the rallying point of Arabian and Jewish learning . A good deal of the medical and surgical practice was in the hands of the religiousorders, particularly of the See also:

• BENEDICTINES, or BLACK MONKS

Benedictines, The practice of surgery by the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy was at length forbidden by the See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

Council of See also:

• TOURS

Tours (1163) . The surgical writings of the time were See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere reproductions of the classical or Arabian authors .

One of the first to go back to See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent observation and reflection was See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William of Saliceto, who belonged to the school of See also:

• BOLOGNA
• BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524–1608)

Bologna; his work (1275) See also:

• ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF

advocates the use of the knife in many places where the actual cautery was used by ancient See also:

• PRESCRIPTION

prescription . A greater name in the history of medieval surgery is that of his See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil Lanfranchi of See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan, who migrated (owing to See also:

• POLITICAL

political troubles) first to Lyons and then to Paris . He distinguished between arterial and venous haemorrhage, and is said to have used the ligature for the former . Contemporary with him in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France was See also:

• HENRI

Henri de Mondeville (Hermondaville) of the school of Montpellier, whose teaching is best known through that of his more famous pupil See also:

• GUY, THOMAS (1644–1724)

Guy de Chauliac; the Chirurgie of the latter bears the date of 1363, and marks the advance in precision• which the revival of anatomy by Mondino had made possible . Eighteen years before Lanfranchi came to Paris a See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college of surgeons was founded there (1279) by Pitard, who had accompanied St See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis to See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine as his surgeon . The college was under the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of St Cosines and St Damianus, two practitioners of medicine who suffered martyrdom in the reign of See also:

• DIOCLETIAN (GAIUs AURELIUS VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS) (A.D. 245–313)
• DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF (De Pretiis rerum venalium)

Diocletian, and it became known as the College de St Come . From the time that Lanfranchi joined it it attracted many pupils . It maintained its independent existence for several centuries, alongside the medical See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty of the university; the corporations of surgeons in See also:

• ETHER, (C2H5)2O

ether capitals, such as those of London and See also:

• EDINBURGH

Edinburgh, were modelled upon it . The 14th and 15th centuries are almost entirely without interest for surgical history . The dead level of tradition is broken first by two men of originality and See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius—P . See also:

• PARACELSUS (c. 1490-1541)

Paracelsus (1493-1541) and See also:

• PARE, AMBROISE (1510-1590)

Pare, and by the revival of anatomy at the hands of Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) and See also:

• GABRIEL (Heb. SKns, man of God)

Gabriel - See also:

• FALLOPIUS (or FALLOPIO), GABRIELLO (1523-1562)

Fallopius (1523-1562), professors at See also:

• PADUA (Lat. Patavium ; Ital. Padova)

Padua . Apart from the mystical form in which much of his teaching was See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast, Paracelsus has great merits as a reformer of surgical practice. paraceisus .

" The high value of his surgical writings," says - Haser, " has been recognized at all times, even by his opponents:" It is See also:

• RIOT (0. Fr. riote, of uncertain etymology)

riot, however, as an innovator in operative surgery, but-rather as a See also:

• DIRECT

direct observer of natural processes, that Paracelsus is distinguished . His description of "See also:

• HOSPITAL (Lat. haspitalis, the adjective of hospes, host or guest)

hospital See also:

• GANGRENE (from Gr. y&yypawa, an eating sore, from ypaivewv, to gnaw)

gangrene," fot example, is perfectly true to nature; his numerous observations on syphilis are also See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound and sensible; and he was the first to point out the connexion between See also:

• CRETINISM

cretinism of the offspring and goitre of the parents . He gives most prominence to the healing of wounds . His special surgical treatises are See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die kleine Chirurgie (1528) and Die See also:

• GROSSE, JULIUS WALDEMAR (1828—1902)

grosse Wund-Arznei (1536-r537) —the latter being the best known of his See also:

• WORKS

works . Somewhat later in date, and of much greater See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete importance for surgery than Paracelsus, is Ambroise Pare (1510- Pars, 1590) . He began See also:

• LIFE

life as apprentice to a See also:

• BARBER (from Lat. barba, beard)

barber- surgeon in Paris and as a pupil at the hotel dieu . His earliest opportunities were in military surgery during the See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign of Francis I. in See also:

• PIEDMONT (Ital. Piemonte; Low Lat. Pedemons and Pedemontium)

Piedmont . Instead of treating gunshot wounds with hot oil, according to the practice of the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, he had the temerity to See also:

• TRUST

trust to a simple bandage; and from that beginning he proceeded to many other developments of rational surgery . In 1545 he published at Paris La Methode de traicter See also:

• LES

les playes faictes See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par hacquebutes et aultres bastons d See also:

• FEU

feu . The same See also:

• YEAR

year he began to attend the lectures of Sylvius, the Paris teacher of anatomy, to whom he became prosector; and his next book was an Anatomy (1550) . His most memorable service was to get the use of the ligature for large arteries generally adopted, a method of controlling the haemorrhage which made amputation on a large See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale possible for the first time . Like Paracelsus, he writes in the See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people, while he is free from the encumbrance of mystical theories, which detract from the merits of his See also:

• FELLOW

fellow reformer in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany .

It is only in his book on monsters, written towards the end of his career, that he shows himself to have been by no means free from superstition . Pare was adored by the army and greatly esteemed by successive See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings; but his innovations were opposed, as usual, by the faculty, and he had to justify the use of the ligature as well as he could by quotations from Galen and other ancients . Surgery in the 16th century recovered much of the dexterity and resource that had distinguished it in the best periods of antiquity, while it underwent the developments opened up to it by new forms of wounds inflicted by new weapons of warfare . The use of the staff and other instruments of the " apparatus See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

major " was the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief improvement in lithotomy . A " See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical cure " of hernia by sutures superseded the old application of the actual cautery . The earlier modes of treating stricture of the urethra were tried; plastic operations were once more done with something like the skill of Brahmanical and classical times; and ophthalmic surgery was to some extent rescued from the hands of ignorant pre-tenders . It is noteworthy that even in the legitimate profession dexterous special operations were kept See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret; thus the use of the " apparatus major " in lithotomy was handed down as a secret in the See also:

• FAMILY

family of Laurence Colot, a contemporary of Pare's . The 17th century was distinguished rather for the rapid progress of anatomy and physiology, for the Baconian and Cartesian philosophies, and the keen interest taken in complete systems of medicine, than for a high See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard of surgical practice . The teaching of Pare that gunshot wounds were merely contused and not poisoned, and that simple treatment was the best for them, was enforced anew by Magati (1579-1647), See also:

• WISEMAN, NICHOLAS PATRICK STEPHEN (1802-1865)

Wiseman and others . Trephining was freely resorted to, even for inveterate migraine; See also:

• PHILIP
• PHILIP (Gr.'FiXtrsro , fond of horses, from dn)^eiv, to love, and limos, horse; Lat. Philip pus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes, Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr. Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe)
• PHILIP, JOHN (1775-1851)
• PHILIP, KING (c. 1639-1676)
• PHILIP, LANOGRAVE OF HESSE (1504-1567)

Philip William, See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince of See also:

• ORANGE
• ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium)
• ORANGE, HOUSE OF

Orange, is said to have been trephined seventeen times . Flap-amputations, which had been practised in the best period of Roman surgery by Leonides and Heliodorus, were reintroduced by Lowdham, an See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford surgeon, in 1679, and probably used by Wiseman, who was the first to, practise the See also:

• PRIMARY

primary major amputations . Fabriz von See also:

• HILDEN

Hilden (156o-1634) introduced a form of tourniquet, made by placing a piece of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood under the bandage encircling the See also:

• LIMB

limb; out of that there See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew the See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block-tourniquet of See also:

• MOREL

Morel, first used at the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege of See also:

• BESANCON

Besancon in 1674; and this, again, was superseded by See also:

• JEAN

Jean Louis See also:

• PETIT, SIR DINSHAW MANECKJI, BART

Petit's (1674-1750) See also:

• SCREW (O.E. scrue, from O. Fr. escroue, mod. ecrou; ultimate origin uncertain; the word, or a similar one, appears in Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Schraube, Dan. skrue, but Skeat, following Diaz, finds the origin in Lat. scrobs, a ditch, hole, particularl

screw-tourniquet in 1718 .

Strangu- lated hernia, which was for long avoided, became a subject df operation . Lithotomy by the lateral method came to great perfection in the hands of Jacques See also:

• BEAULIEU

Beaulieu . To this century also belong the first indications (not to mention the Alexandrian practice of Ammonius) of crushing the stone in the bladder . The theory and practice of transfusion of blood occupied much See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention, especially among the busy See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits of the Royal Society, such as See also:

• BOYLE
• BOYLE, JOHN J
• BOYLE, ROBERT (1627-1691)

Boyle, Lower and others . The seat of cataract in the substance of the See also:

• LENS
• LENS (from Lat. lens, lentil, on account of the similarity of the form of a lens to that of a lentil seed)

lens was first made out by two French surgeons, Quarre and Lasnier . Perhaps the most important figure in Wiseman. the surgical history of the century is See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard Wise- See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man (1622?-1676) the See also:

• FATHER

father of English surgery . Wiseman took the Royalist side in the See also:

• WARS

wars of the Common-See also:

• WEALTH

wealth, and was surgeon to See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James I. and See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles I., and accompanied Charles II. in his See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile in France and the See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

Low Countries . After serving for a time in the See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish See also:

• FLEET

fleet, he joined the Royalist cause in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England and was taken prisoner at the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of See also:

• WORCESTER
• WORCESTER, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF
• WORCESTER, JOHN TIPTOFT, EARL OF (1427—1470)
• WORCESTER, WILLIAM (c. 1415-c. 1482)

Worcester . At the Restoration he became See also:

• SERJEANT

serjeant-surgeon to Charles II., and held the same See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office under James II . His Seven Chirurgical Treatises were first published in 1676, and went through several See also:

• EDITIONS

editions; they relate to tumours, ulcers, diseases of the anus, king's evil (See also:

• SCROFULA (Lat. for " little sow "), or STJTMA

scrofula), wounds, fractures, luxations and lues venerea . Wiseman was the first to See also:

• ADVOCATE (Lat. advocatus, from advocare, to summon, especially in law to call in the aid of a counsel or witness, and so generally to summon to one's assistance)

advocate primary amputation (or operation before the onset of See also:

• FEVER (Lat. febris, connected with fervere, to burn)

fever) in cases of gunshot wounds and other injuries of the limbs . He introduced also the practice of treating aneurisms by compression, gave an accurate account of fungus articulorum, and improved the operative procedure for hernia .

The 18th century marks the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of surgery on a broader basis than the skill of individual surgeons of the court and army, and on a more scientific basis than the See also:

• RULE

rule of thumb of the multitude of barber-surgeons and other inferiororders of practitioners . In Paris the College de St Come gave way to the See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy of Surgery in 1731, with Petit as director, to which was added at a later date the Ecole Pratique te de Chirurgie, with See also:

• FRANCOIS (1558-1614)

Francois Chopart (1743- Centtrtury . 1795) and See also:

• PIERRE

Pierre See also:

• DESAULT, PIERRE JOSEPH (1744-1795)

Desault (1744-1795) among its first professors . The Academy of Surgery set up a very high standard from the first, and exercised great exclusiveness in its publications and its honorary membership . In London and Edinburgh the development of surgery proceeded on less academical lines, and with greater See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope for individual effort . Private dissecting rooms and anatomical theatres were started, of which perhaps the most notable was Dr William See also:

• HUNTER, JOHN (1728-1793)
• HUNTER, ROBERT MERCER TALIAFERRO (r8o9-1887)
• HUNTER, SIR WILLIAM WILSON (1840-19oo)
• HUNTER, WILLIAM (1718–1783)
• HUNTER, WILLIAM ALEXANDER (1844-1898)

Hunter's (1718-1783) school in Great See also:

• WINDMILL

Windmill See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

Street, London, inasmuch as it was the first See also:

• PERCH (through Fr. from Lat. perca, Gr. 7rEpKo; the last word is connected with 2repev6r, dark-coloured, spotted)
• PERCH (through Fr. perche from Lat. pertica, a pole or rod used for measurement)

perch of his more famous See also:

• BROTHER

brother See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John Hunter (1728-1793) . In Edinburgh, Alexander See also:

• MONRO, DAVID BINNING (1836-1905)

Monro (1697-1767), first of the name, became See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor of anatomy to the See also:

• COMPANY

company of surgeons in 1719, transferring his See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title and services to the university the year after; as he was the first systematic teacher of medicine or surgery in Edinburgh, he is regarded as the founder of the famous medical school of that See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city . In both London and Edinburgh a company of barbers and surgeons had been in existence for many years before; but it was not until the association of these companies with the study of anatomy, See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative anatomy, physiology and See also:

• PATHOLOGY (from Gr. raBos, suffering)

pathology that the surgical profession began to take See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank with the older order of physicians . Hence the significance of the eulogy of a living surgeon on John Hunter: " More than any other man he helped to make us gentlemen " (Hunterian Oration, 1877) . The state pf surgery in Germany may be inferred from the fact that the teaching of it at the new university of See also:

• GOTTINGEN

Gottingen was for long in the hands of Albrecht von See also:

• HALLER, ALBRECHT VON (1708–1777)
• HALLER, BERTHOLD (1492–1536)

Haller (1708-1777), whose office was " professor of theoretical medicine." In the Prussian army it fell to the regimental surgeon to shave the See also:

• OFFICERS

officers . At See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin a medicochirurgical college was founded by Surgeon-General See also:

• ERNST, HEINRICH WILHELM (1814–1865)

Ernst von See also:

• HOLTZENDORFF, JOACHIM WILHELM FRANZ PHILIPP VON (1829—1889)

Holtzendorff (1688-1751) in 1714, to which was joined in 1726 a school of clinical surgery at the Charite . Military surgery was the original purpose of the school, which still exists, side by side with the surgical cliniques of the faculty, as the See also:

• FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836— )

Friedrich Wilhelm's Institut .

In See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, in like manner, a school for the training of army surgeons was founded in 1785—See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph's Academy or the Josephinum . The first systematic teaching of surgery in the See also:

• UNITED

United States was by Dr Shippen at See also:

• PHILADELPHIA

Philadelphia, where the medical college towards the end of the century was largely officered by pupils of the Edinburgh school . A great part of the advance during the 18th century was in surgical pathology, including Petit's observations on the formation of thrombi in severed vessels, Hunter's account of the reparative See also:

• PROCESS

process, See also:

• BENJAMIN
• BENJAMIN, JUDAHPHILIP (1811-1884)

Benjamin See also:

• BELL
• BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1819—1905)
• BELL, ANDREW (1753—1832)
• BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843)
• BELL, HENRY (1767-1830)
• BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1803-1874)
• BELL, JACOB (1810-1859)
• BELL, JOHN (1691-178o)
• BELL, JOHN (1763-1820)
• BELL, JOHN (1797-1869)
• BELL, ROBERT (1800-1867)
• BELL, SIR CHARLES (1774—1842)

Bell's See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification of ulcers, the observations of See also:

• DUHAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE (1624-1706)

Duhamel and others on the formation of callus and on bone-repair in general, Pott's distinction between spinal curvature from caries or See also:

• ABSCESS (from Lat. abscedere, to separate)

abscess of the vertebrae and kyphosis from other causes, observations by various surgeons on chronic disease of the See also:

• HIP

hip, See also:

• KNEE (O. E. cneow, a word common to Indo-European languages, cf. Ger. Knie, Fr. genou, Span. hinojo, Lat. genu, Gr. ybvv, Sansk. janu)

knee, and other joints, and See also:

• CHESELDEN, WILLIAM (1688-1752)

Cheselden's description of neuroma . Among the great improvements in surgical procedure we have Cheselden's operation of lithotomy (six deaths in eighty cases), See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar See also:

• HAWKINS, CAESAR HENRY (1798-1884)
• HAWKINS, or HAWKYNS, SIR JOHN (1532-1595)
• HAWKINS, or HAWKYNS, SIR RICHARD (c. 1562-1622)
• HAWKINS, SIR JOHN (1719-1789)

Hawkins's (1711-1786) cutting See also:

• GORGET (O. Fr. gorgete, dim. of gorge, throat)

gorget for the same (1753), Hunter's operation (1785) for popliteal aneurism by tying the femoral artery in the canal of the triceps where its walls were sound (" excited the greatest wonder," Assalini), Petit's, Desault's and See also:

• PERCIVAL, JAMES GATES

Percival Pott's (1714-1788) treatment of fractures, Gimbernat's (See also:

• BARCELONA

Barcelona) operation for strangulated femoral hernia, Pott's bistoury for fistula, Charles See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White's (1728-1813, See also:

• MANCHESTER
• MANCHESTER (popularly Manchester-by-the-Sea)
• MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Manchester) and See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry See also:

• PARK (Fr. part; Ital. parco; Sp. Marque; O.Eng. pearroc; connected with Ger. pferch, fold, and pfarrei, district, translating med. Lat. parochia, parish)
• PARK, EDWARDS AMASA (1808–1900)
• PARK, MUNGO (1771-1806?)

Park's (1745-1831, Liver-See also:

• POOL

pool) excision of joints, Petit's invention of the screw-tourniquet, the same surgeon's operation for lacrymal fistula, Chopart's partial amputation of the See also:

• FOOT

foot, Desault's bandage for fractured clavicle, William Bromfield's (1712-1792) artery See also:

• HOOK, JAMES CLARKE (1819-1907)
• HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD (1788-1841)
• HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR (1798-1875)

hook, and William Cheselden's (1688-1752) operation of iridectomy . Other surgeons of great versatility and general merit were Sharp of London, Benjamin See also:

• GOOCH, SIR DANIEL

Gooch (fl . 1775) of See also:

• NORWICH
• NORWICH, GEORGE GORING, EARL OF (1583?-1663)

Norwich, William Hey (1736-1819) of See also:

• LEEDS
• LEEDS, THOMAS OSBORNE

Leeds, See also:

• DAVID
• DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably beloved 1)
• DAVID, FELICIEN (1810—1876)
• DAVID, GERARD [GHEERAERT DAVIT], (?=1523)
• DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789–1856)
• DAVID, ST (Dewi, Sant)

David and See also:

• CLAUDE, JEAN (1619-1687)

Claude See also:

• NICOLAS
• NICOLAS, SIR NICHOLAS HARRIS (1799–1848)

Nicolas Le See also:

• CAT
• CAT, CIVET
• CAT, HOUSE

Cat (1705-1768) of See also:

• ROUEN

Rouen, See also:

• RAPHAEL (Hebrew smm, " God heals ")

Raphael See also:

• SABATIER, LOUIS AUGUSTE (1839-1901)

Sabatier (1732-1811), Georges de La 16th Century . 17th Century . of museums of anatomy and surgical pathology by the Hunters, See also:

• GUILLAUME
• GUILLAUME, JEAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE EUGENE (1822-1905)

Guillaume See also:

• DUPUYTREN, GUILLAUME, BARON (1777-1835)

Dupuytren (1777-1835), Jules See also:

• CLOQUET

Cloquet (1790—1843), J . F . See also:

• BLUMENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1752–1840)

Blumenbach (1752-1840), John See also:

• BARCLAY, ALEXANDER (c. 1476-1552)
• BARCLAY, JOHN (1582-1621)
• BARCLAY, JOHN (1734-1798)
• BARCLAY, R
• BARCLAY, ROBERT (1648-1690)
• BARCLAY, WILLIAM (1546–1608)

Barclay (1758-1826), and a great number of more modern anatomists and surgeons; the other was the method of clinical teaching, exemplified in its highest form of See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant reference to principles by See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• LAWRENCE
• LAWRENCE (LAURENTIUS, LORENZO), ST
• LAWRENCE, AMOS (1786—1852)
• LAWRENCE, AMOS ADAMS (1814–1886)
• LAWRENCE, GEORGE ALFRED (1827–1876)
• LAWRENCE, JOHN LAIRD MAIR LAWRENCE, 1ST BARON (1811-1879)
• LAWRENCE, SIR HENRY MONTGOMERY (1806–1857)
• LAWRENCE, SIR THOMAS (1769–1830)
• LAWRENCE, STRINGER (1697–1775)

Lawrence (1711-1783) and James See also:

• SYME, JAMES (1799–1870)

Syme (1799-1870) . In surgical procedure the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of the anaesthetic 'properties of ether, See also:

• CHLOROFORM (trichlor-methane), CHC13

chloroform, methylene, &c., was of incalculable service; while the conservative principle in operations upon diseased or injured parts, and especially what may be called the hygienic See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea (or, more narrowly, the antiseptic and aseptic principles) in the conditions governing surgery, were strikingly beneficial . The following were among the more important additions to the resources of the surgical art: the thin See also:

• THREAD (0. Eng. praed, literally, that which is twisted, prawan, to twist, to throw, cf. " throwster," a silk-winder, Ger. drehen, to twist, turn, Du. draad, Ger. Draht, thread, wire)

thread ligature for arteries, introduced by See also:

• JONES
• JONES, ALFRED GILPIN (1824-1906)
• JONES, EBENEZER (182o-186o)
• JONES, ERNEST CHARLES (1819-1869)
• JONES, HENRY (1831-1899)
• JONES, HENRY ARTHUR (1851- )
• JONES, INIGO (1573-1651)
• JONES, JOHN (c. 1800-1882)
• JONES, MICHAEL (d. 1649)
• JONES, OWEN (1741-1814)
• JONES, OWEN (1809-1874)
• JONES, RICHARD (179o-1855)
• JONES, SIR ALFRED LEWIS (1845-1909)
• JONES, SIR WILLIAM (1746-1794)
• JONES, THOMAS RUPERT (1819– )
• JONES, WILLIAM (1726-1800)

Jones of See also:

• JERSEY
• JERSEY, EARLS OF

Jersey (1805) ; the revival of torsion of arteries by Jean Amussat (1796-1856) [1829]; the practice of drainage by Pierre See also:

• MARIE

Marie Chassaignac (1805-1879) [1859]; aspiration by Philippe See also:

• PELLETAN, CHARLES CAMILLE (1846– )

Pelletan (1747-1829) and See also:

• RECENT

recent Improvers ; the See also:

• PLASTER

plaster-of-Paris bandage or other immovable application for simple fractures, See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

club-foot, &c .

(an old Eastern practice recommended in Europe about 1814 by the English See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul at See also:

• BASRA (written also BUSRA, BASSORA and BASSORA)

Basra) ; the re-breaking of badly set fractures; galvano-caustics and ecraseurs; the general introduction of resection of joints (Sir William See also:

• FERGUSSON, JAMES (18o8-r886)
• FERGUSSON, ROBERT (1750-1774)
• FERGUSSON, SIR WILLIAM

Fergusson (1808-1877), Syme and others); tenotomy by Jacques Delpech (1777-1832) and Louis Stromeyer (1804-1876) [1831]; operation for See also:

• SQUINT (possibly connected with Swed. svinka, to flinch; 0. Eng. swiccan, avoid)

squint by Johann Dieffenbach (1795-1847) [1842]; successful ligature of the external iliac for aneurism of the femoral by John See also:

• ABERNETHY, JOHN (1680-,74o)
• ABERNETHY, JOHN (1764-1831)

Abernethy (1764-1831) [1806]; ligature of the subclavian in the third portion by See also:

• ASTLEY, JACOB ASTLEY, BARON (1579-1652)
• ASTLEY, SIR JOHN DIIGDALB

Astley See also:

• COOPER
• COOPER (or COUPER), THOMAS (c. 1517-1594)
• COOPER, ABRAHAM (1787—1868)
• COOPER, ALEXANDER (d. i66o)
• COOPER, CHARLES HENRY (18o8-1866)
• COOPER, JAMES FENIMORE (1789-1851)
• COOPER, PETER (1791-1883)
• COOPER, SAMUEL (1609-1672)
• COOPER, SIR ASTLEY PASTON (1768-1841)
• COOPER, THOMAS (1759–1840)
• COOPER, THOMAS (1805–1892)
• COOPER, THOMAS SIDNEY (1803–1902)

Cooper (1768-1841) [1806], and in its first portion by Colles; crushing of stone in the bladder by Gruithuisen of See also:

• MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

Munich (1819) and Jean Civia!e (1792-1867) of Paris [1826] ; cure of ovarian dropsy by removing the cyst (since greatly perfected); discovery of the ophthalmoscope, and many improvements in ophthalmic surgery by See also:

• ALFRED

Alfred von See also:

• GRAFE, ALBRECHT VON (1828–187o)
• GRAFE, HEINRICH (1802–1868)
• GRAFE, KARL FERDINAND VON (1787–1840)

Grafe (1830-1899) and others; application of the laryngoscope in operations on the larynx by Jean Czermak (1828-1873) 1860] and others; together with additions to the resources of aural surgery and See also:

• DENTISTRY (from Lat. dens, a tooth)

dentistry . The great names in the surgery of the first See also:

• HALF

half of the century besides those mentioned are: See also:

• ANTONIO
• ANTONIO (1429—1498)
• ANTONIO, NICOLAS (1617-1684)

Antonio Scarpa of See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy (1747-1832); See also:

• ALEXIS
• ALEXIS, WILLIBALD

Alexis See also:

• BOYER, ALEXIS (1757-1833)
• BOYER, JEAN PIERRE (1776-1850)

Boyer (1757-1833), See also:

• FELIX
• FELIX, ANTONIUS
• FELIX, LIA (1830– )

Felix Larrey (1766-1842)--to whom See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon left a See also:

• LEGACY (Lat. legatum)

legacy of a hundred thousand francs, with the eulogy: " C'est I'homme le plus vertueux que j'aie connu," Philibert Roux (178o—18J4), Jacques Lisfranc (1790-1847), Alfred Louis Velpeau (1795-1868), Joseph Malgaigne (1806-1865), Auguste Nelaton (1807-1873)—all of the French school; of the See also:

• BRITISH

British school, John Bell (1763-1820), Charles Bell (1774-1842), See also:

• ALLAN, DAVID (1744–1796)
• ALLAN, SIR HUGH (1810–1882)
• ALLAN, SIR WILLIAM (1782–1850)

Allan See also:

• BURNS, JOHN (1858– )
• BURNS, ROBERT (1759-1796)
• BURNS, SIR GEORGE

Burns (1781-1813), See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert See also:

• LISTON, JOHN (c. 1776-1846)
• LISTON, ROBERT (1794-1847)

Liston (1794-1847), James Wardrop (1782-1869), Astiey Cooper, Henry Cline (1750-1827), Benjamin Travers (1783-1858), Benjamin See also:

• BRODIE, PETER BELLINGER (1815–1897)
• BRODIE, SIR BENJAMIN COLLINS

Brodie (1783-1862), See also:

• EDWARD

Edward See also:

• STANLEY (FAMILY)
• STANLEY, ARTHUR PENRHYN (18x5–1881)
• STANLEY, EDWARD (1779-1849)
• STANLEY, SIR HENRY MORTON (184o-1904)
• STANLEY, SIR WILLIAM (1548-163o)
• STANLEY, THOMAS (1625-1678)

Stanley (1793-1862) and See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George See also:

• GUTHRIE
• GUTHRIE, SIR JAMES (1859– )
• GUTHRIE, THOMAS (1803-1873)
• GUTHRIE, THOMAS ANSTEY (1856- )

Guthrie (1785-1856) ; in the United States,V . See also:

• MOTT, LUCRETIA [COFFIN] (1793–188o)
• MOTT, VALENTINE (1785–1865)

Mott, S . D . See also:

• GROSS

Gross and others; in Germany, See also:

• KERN, JAN HENDRIK (1833– )

Kern and Schuh of Vienna, Von See also:

• WALTHER, BERNHARD (1430-15o4)

Walther and Textor of See also:

• WURZBURG

Wurzburg, Chelius, Hesselbach and the two Langenbecks—Konrad (1776-1851) and Bernhard (1810--1887) . Modern Practice of Surgery.2-A great See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change has taken place in the practice of surgery since the middle of the 19th century, in consequence of the new See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science of See also:

• BACTERIOLOGY

bacteriology, and the introduction of aseptic methods, due to the teaching of See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord See also:

• LISTER, JOSEPH LISTER
• LISTER, MARTIN (c. 1638-1712)

Lister: It had long been known that subcutaneous injuries followed a far more satisfactory course than those with wounds, and the history of surgery gives evidence that surgeons endeavoured, by the use of various dressings, empirically to prevent the evils which were matters of common observation during the healing The Royal College of Surgeons in London was established in 'Soo, the title being changed in 1843 to Royal College of Surgeons of England . 2 For the surgery of any particular region or See also:

• ORGAN

organ, reference should be made to the article on that region or organ . See also:

• XXVI

xxvi . 5I9 of open wounds . Various means were also adopted to prevent the entrance of See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air, as, for instance, in the opening of abscesses by the " valvular method " of Abernethy, and by the subcutaneous division of tendons in " club-foot." Balsams and See also:

• TURPENTINE (in M. Eng. turbentine, adapted through the O. Fr. turbentine or terebentine from Lat. terebinthina, sc. resina, resin of the terebinth, Gr. eepiOtvOos or eippavOos)

turpentine and various forms of spirit were the basis. of many varieties of dressing . These different dressings were frequently cumber-some and difficult of application, and they did not attain the See also:

• OBJECT

object aimed at, while, at the same time, they shut in the discharges and gave rise to other evils which prevented rapid and painless healing . In the beginning of the 19th century these complicated dressings began to lose favour, and operating surgeons went to the opposite extreme and applied a simple dressing, the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main object of which was to allow a free See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape of See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge .

Others applied no dressing at all, laying the stump of a limb after amputation on a piece of dry See also:

• LINT (in M. Eng. linnet, probably through Fr. linette, from lin, the flax-plant; cf. " line ")

lint, avoiding thereby any unnecessary movement of the parts . Others, again, left the See also:

• WOUND (O. Eng. wund,connected with a Teutonic verb, meaning to strive, fight, suffer, seen in O. Eng. winnan, whence Eng. " win ")

wound open for some See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours after an operation, preventing in this way any See also:

• ACCUMULATION (from Lat. accumulare, to heap up)

accumulation, anal brought its edges and surfaces together after all oozing of blood had ceased, and after the effusion, the result of injury to the tissues in the operation had to a great extent subsided . As a result of these See also:

• MEASURES

measures many wounds healed kindly . But in other cases inflammation occurred, accompanied by pain and swelling, and the formation of pus . High fever also, due to the unhealthy state of the wound, was observed . These conditions often proved fatal, and surgeons attributed them to the constitution of the patient, or else thought that some See also:

• POISON

poison had entered the wound, and, passing from it into the See also:

• VEINS

veins, had contaminated the blood and poisoned the patient . The close association between the formation of pus in wounds and the fatal " See also:

• INTOXICATION (Lat. toxicare, intoxicare, to smear with poison, toxicum, an adaptation of Gr. 'r(*uK v, sc. ¢apµasov, a poison smeared on arrows; roEov, bow)

intoxication " of many of those cases encouraged the belief that the pus cells from the wound entered the circulation . Hence came the word " pyaemia." It was also observed that a septic condition of the wound was usually associated with constitutional fever, and it was supposed that the septic matter passed into the blood—whence the See also:

• TERM

term " septicaemia." It was further observed that the crowding together of patients with open wounds increased the liability to these constitutional disasters, so every endeavour was made to See also:

• SEPARATE

separate the patients and to improve See also:

• VENTILATION (Lat. ventilare, from ventus, wind)

ventilation . In See also:

• BUILDING

building hospitals the See also:

• PAVILION

pavilion and other systems, with windows on both sides, with See also:

• CROSS

cross-ventilation in the wards, were adopted in order to give the utmost amount of fresh air . Hospital buildings were spread over as large an See also:

• AREA

area as possible, and were restricted in height, if practicable, to two storeys . The term " hospitalism " was coined by Sir J . Y .

See also:

• SIMPSON, MATTHEW (1811-1884)
• SIMPSON, SIR JAMES YOUNG (1811-1870)
• SIMPSON, THOMAS (1710-1761)

Simpson, who collected See also:

• STATISTICS

statistics comparing hospital and private practice, by which he endeavoured to show that private patients were far less liable to such catastrophes than were those who were treated in hospitals . This was the condition of affairs when Lister in 1860, from a study of the experimental researches of See also:

• PASTEUR, LOUIS (1822-1895)

Pasteur into the causes of putrefaction, stated that the evils observed in open wounds were due to the See also:

• ADMISSION

admission into them .4nttsepHa of organisms which exist in the air, in water, on surgery. instruments, on See also:

• SPONGES

sponges, and on the hands of the surgeon or the skin of the patient . Having accepted the germ theory of putrefaction, Lister applied himself to discover the best way of preventing all harmful organisms from reaching the wound from the moment that it was made until it was healed . In the germ he had to deal with a microscopic plant, and he desired to render its growth impossible . This, he thought, could be done either by destroying the plant itself before it had the See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance of entering the wound or after it had entered, or by facilitating the removal of the discharges and preventing their accumulation in the wound, and by doing everything to prevent the lowering of the vitality of the wounded tissues, because unhealthy tissues are the most liable to attack . Several sub-stances were then known as possessing properties antagonistic to See also:

• SEPSIS (Gr. Qi7,/iss, putrefaction), or SEPTIC INFECTION

sepsis or putrefaction, and hence called " antiseptic." Acting on a See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion of Lemaire, Lister See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose for his experiment? carbolic See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid, which he used at first in a crude form . He had many difficulties to contend with—the impurity of the substance . Faye (1701-1781), Ledran, See also:

• ANTOINE, ANDRE (1858- )

Antoine Louis (1723-1792), Sauveur Morand (1697-1773) and Pierre See also:

• PERCY (FAMILY)
• PERCY, SIR HENRY
• PERCY, THOMAS (1729-1811)
• PERCY, THOMAS (c. 156o-16os)

Percy (1754-1825) of Paris, Bertrandi of See also:

• TURIN

Turin, Troja of Naples, Palleta of Milan, Schmucker of the Prussian army, See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August See also:

• RICHTER, ADRIAN LUDWIG (1803-1884)
• RICHTER, ERNST FRIEDRICH EDUARD (1808–1879)
• RICHTER, EUGEN (1839–1906)
• RICHTER, HANS (1843– )
• RICHTER, JEREMIAS BENJAMIN (1762–1807)
• RICHTER, JOHANN PAUL FRIEDRICH (1763–1825)

Richter of Gottingen, See also:

• SIEBOLD, CARL THEODOR ERNST VON (1804–1885)
• SIEBOLD, PHILIPP FRANZ VON (1796-1866)

Siebold of Wurzburg, See also:

• OLAF
• OLAF (II.)
• OLAF, or ANLAF (d. 981)

Olaf Acrel of See also:

• STOCKHOLM

Stockholm and Callisen of See also:

• COPENHAGEN (Danish Kjobenhavn)

Copenhagen . Two things gave surgical knowledge and skill in the 19th century a character of scientific or See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive. cumula-19th tiveness and a wide See also:

• DIFFUSION (from the Lat. diffundere; dis-, asunder, and fundere, to pour out)

diffusion through all ranks century. of the profession.l The one was the founding its irritating properties and the difficulty of finding the exact strength in which to use it: he feared to use it too strong, lest it should impair the vitality of the tissues and thus prevent healing; and he feared to use it too weak, lest its antiseptic qualities should be insufficient for the object in view . As dressings for wounds he used various chemical substances, which, being mixed with carbolic acid, were intended to give off a certain quantity of carbolic acid in the form of vapour, so ,that the wound might be constantly surrounded by an antiseptic which would destroy any organisms approaching it, and,. at the same time, not interfere with its healing . At first, although he prevented pyaemia in a marked degree, he, to a certain extent, irritated the wounds and prevented rapid healing . He began his historic experiments in See also:

• GLASGOW

Glasgow and continued them on his removal to the See also:

• CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. chcere, through O. Fr. chaire or chaiere, from Lat. cathedra, later caledra, Gr. xaOi3pa, seat, cf. "cathedral"; the modern Fr. form chaise, a chair, has been adopted in English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; chaire

chair of clinical surgery in Edinburgh .

After many disappointments, he gradually perfected his method of performing operations and dressing wounds; which was somewhat as follows . A patient was suffering, for instance, from disease of the foot necessitating amputation at the See also:

• ANKLE

ankle See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint . The part to be operated on was enveloped in a See also:

• TOWEL

towel soaked with a 5% See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution of carbolic acid . The towel was applied two hours before the operation, with the object of destroying the putrefactive organisms present in the skin . The patient was placed on the operating table, and brought under the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of chloroform; the limb was then elevated to empty it of blood, and a tourniquet was applied See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the limb below the knee . The instruments to be used during the operation had been previously purified by lying for half an See also:

• HOUR

hour in a See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat See also:

• PORCELAIN

porcelain dish containing carbolic acid (i in 20) . The sponges See also:

• LAY

lay in a similar carbolic lotion . Towels soaked in the same solution were laid over the table and blankets near the part to be operated upon . The hands of the operator, as well as those of his assist-ants, were thoroughly cleansed by washing them in carbolic lotion, free use being made of a nail See also:

• BRUSH (from Fr. brosse, which, like the English word, means both the undergrowth of a wood and the instrument; if the word in both these meanings is ultimately the same, then the origin is from a bundle of brushwood used as a brush or broom, but this is h
• BRUSH, GEORGE DE FOREST (1855– )

brush for this purpose . The operation was performed under a See also:

• CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

cloud of carbolized watery vapour (1 in 30) from a See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam spray-producer . The visible bleeding points were first ligated; the tourniquet was removed; and any vessels that had escaped See also:

• NOTICE

notice were secured . The wound was stitched, a drainage-See also:

• TUBE (Lat. tuba)

tube made of red See also:

• RUBBER, INDIARUBBER

rubber being introduced at one corner to prevent accumulation of discharge; a See also:

• STRIP

strip of " protective "—oiled See also:

• SILK

silk coated with carbolized dextrin—was washed in carbolic lotion and applied over the wound .

A See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double ply of carbolic See also:

• GAUZE

gauze was soaked in the lotion laid over the protective, overlapping it freely . A dressing consisting of eight layers of dry gauze was placed over all, covering the stump and passing up the See also:

• LEG
• LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, from the Old Norwegian leggr, cf. Swed. lagg, Dan. laeg; the O. Eng. word was sceanca, shank)

leg for about six inches . Over that a piece of thin See also:

• MACKINTOSH, SIR JAMES (176 1832)

mackintosh cloth was placed, and the whole arrangement was fixed with a gauze bandage . The mackintosh cloth prevented the carbolic acid from escaping and at the same time caused the discharge from the wound to spread through the gauze . The wound itself was shielded by the protective from the vapour given off by the carbolic gauze, whilst the surrounding parts, being constantly exposed to its activity, were protected from the intrusion of septic contamination . And these conditions were maintained until sound healing took place . Whenever the discharge reached the edge of the mackintosh the case required to be dressed, and a new supply of gauze was applied round the stump . Whenever the wound was exposed for dressing the stump was enveloped in the vapour of carbolic acid by means of the steam spray-producer . At first a See also:

• SYRINGE (Gr. ovpryE, reed, pipe)

syringe was used to keep the See also:

• SURFACE

surface constantly wet with lotion and then a See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand-spray . These dressings were repeated at intervals until the wound was healed . The drainage-tube was gradually shortened, and was ultimately removed altogether . . The object Lister had in view from the beginning of his experiments was to place the open wound in a condition as regards the entrance of organisms as nearly as possible like a truly subcutaneous wound, such as a contusion or a simple fracture, in which the unbroken skin acted as a protection to the wounded tissues beneath .

The introduction of this practice by Lister effected a complete change in operativesurgery . The dark times of suppurating wounds, of foul discharges, of secondary haemorrhage, of pyaemic abscesses and hospital gangrene constitute what is now spoken of in surgery as the pre-Listerian era . As years went on, surgeons tried to simplify and improve the somewhat complicated and expensive measures and dressings and chemists were at pains to supply carbolic acid in a pure form and to discover new See also:

• ANTISEPTICS (Gr. avrl, against, and 6177rrnKor, putrefactive)

antiseptics, the great object being to get a non-irritating antiseptic which should at the same time be a powerful germicide . See also:

• IODOFORM, CHI3

Iodoform, oil of See also:

• EUCALYPTUS

eucalyptus, salicylic acid, boracic acid, mercuric iodide, and corrosive sublimate *ere used . For some years Lister irrigated a wound with carbolic lotion during the operation and at the dressings when it was exposed, but the introduction of the spray displaced the See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation method . All these different procedures, however, as regards both the antiseptic used and the best method of its application in oily and watery solutions and in dressings, were subsidiary to the great principle involved—namely, that putrefaction in a wound is an evil which can be prevented, and that, if it is prevented, local irritation, in so far as it is due to putrefaction, is obviated and septicaemia and pyaemia cannot occur . Alongside of this great improvement the immense advantage of free drainage was universally acknowledged . Moreover, surgeons at once began to take greater care in securing the cleanliness of wounds, and some of them, See also:

• LAWSON, CECIL GORDON (1851—1882)
• LAWSON, SIR JOHN (d. 1665)
• LAWSON, SIR WILFRID

Lawson See also:

• TAIT, ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL (1811-1882)
• TAIT, ARTHUR FITZWILLIAM (1819-1905)
• TAIT, PETER GUTHRIE (1831-1901)

Tait and Bantock, for example, produced such excellent results by the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption merely of methods of strict cleanliness, and became so aggressive in their championship of them, that many of the older practitioners were bewildered and unable to decide as to where truth began and where, it ended in the new 'doctrine . But though the actual methods, as taught and practised by Lister, have, with the spray-producers, passed away and given place to new, still the great See also:

• LIGHT

light which he See also:

• SHED

shed in the surgical world burns as brightly as ever it did, and all the methods which are practised to-day are the direct results of his teaching . By r885 the carbolic acid spray, which to some practitioners had apparently been the embodiment of the Listerian theory and practice, was beginning to pass into desuetude, though for a good many years after that time certain surgeons continued to employ it during operation, and during the subsequent dressings of the wound . Surgeons who, having had practical experience of the unhappy course which their operation-cases had been See also:

• APT

apt to run in the pre-Listerian days, and of the vast improvements which ensued on their adoption of the spray-and-gauze method in its entirety, were, not unnaturally, reluctant to operate except in a cloud of carbolic vapour . So, even after Lister himself had given up the spray, its use was continued by many of his disciples .

It was in the course of 1888 that operating surgeons began to neglect the See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter of the antiseptic treatment and to bring themselves more under the broadening influence of its spirit . Certain adventurous and partially unconvinced surgeons began to give up the carbolic spray gradually, by imparting a smaller percentage of carbolic acid to the vapour, until at last the antiseptic disappeared altogether, apparently without detriment to the excellence of the results obtained . But while some surgeons were thus ceasing to apply the See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-septic spray to the wound during operation, others were pouring mild carbolic lotion, or a very weak solution of corrosive sublimate (an extremely potent germicide) over the freshly-cut surfaces . These measures were in turn given up, to the advantage of the patient; for it was hardly to be expected that a chemical See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent which was strong enough to destroy or render inert septic micro-organisms in and about a wound would fail to injure exposed and living tissues . Eventually it became generally admitted that if a surgeon was going to operate upon the depths of an Open abdomen for an hour or more, the chilling and ' the chemical influences of the spray must certainly lower the vitality of the parts exposed, as well as interfere with the prompt healing of the wounded surfaces . With the spray went also the " protective," the See also:

• PARAFFIN

paraffin gauze, and the mackintosh sheeting which enveloped the bulky dressing . Years before this happened, in the address on surgery given at the See also:

• CORK
• CORK (perhaps through Sp. corcha from Lat. cortex, bark, but possibly connected with quercus, oak)
• CORK, RICHARD BOYLE

Cork See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting of the British Medical Association, Sir Aseptic William (then Mr) See also:

• SAVORY, SIR WILLIAM SCOVELL, BART

Savory had somewhat severely sugery. criticized the rigid exclusiveness of the members of the spray-and-gauze school: the sum and substance of the address was that every careful surgeon was an anti-septic surgeon, and that the success of the Listerian surgeon did not depend upon the spray or the gauze, or the two together, but upon cleanliness—that the surgeon's fingers and instruments and the area operated on must be surgically clean . Though precise experiments show that it is impossible for the surgeon to remove every trace of septicity from his own hands and from the skin of his patient, still with nail-brush, See also:

• SOAP

soap and water, and See also:

• ALCOHOL

alcohol or turpentine, with possibly the help of some mercuric germicide, he can, for all practical purposes, render his hands safe . Recognizing this difficulty many surgeons prefer to operate in thin rubber gloves which can, for certain, by boiling, be rendered free of all germs; others, in addition, put on a See also:

• MASK (Fr. masque, apparently from med. Lat. mascus, masca, spectre, through Ital. maschera, Span. mascara)

mask, sterile overalls, and india-rubber shoes . ; But then,* excessive refinements do not seem to be generally acceptable, whilst the results of practice show that they are by no means necessary . The careful, the antiseptic surgeon of 1885 is to-day represented by the careful, the aseptic surgeon . The antiseptic surgeon was waging a constant warfare against germs which his creed told him were on his hands, in the wound, in the air, everywhere—and these he attacked with potent chemicals which beyond question often did real damage to the healthy tissues laid See also:

• BARE

bare during the operation .

If, as was frequently the case, his own hands became sore and rough from contact with the antiseptics he employed, it was not to be wondered at if a peritoneal surface or an incised tissue became more seriously affected . The surgeon of to-day has much less See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce with antiseptics: he operates with hands which, for all practical purposes,-may be considered as germless; he uses instruments which are certainly germless, for they have just been boiled for twenty minutes in water (to which a little common soda has been added to prevent tarnishing of the steel), and he operates on tissues which have been duly made clean in a surgical sense . If he were asked what he considers the chief essentials for securing success in his operative practice, he would probably reply, " Soap.and water and a nail-brush." He uses no antiseptics during the operations, he keeps the wound dry by gently swabbing it with aseptic, absorbent See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton-See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool, and he dresses it with a See also:

• PAD

pad of aseptic gauze . This is the simple aseptic method which has been gradually evolved from the Listerian antiseptic system . But though the pendulum has swung so far in the direction of aseptic surgery, a very large proportion of operators still adhere to the antiseptic measures which had proved so highly beneficial . The judicious employment of weak. solutions of carbolic acid, or of mercuric salts, and the application of unirritating dressings of an anti-septic nature cannot do any harm, and, on the other hand, they may be of great service in the case of there having been some flaw in the carrying out of what should have been an absolutely aseptic operation . A great change has taken place in connexion with the use of soft india-rubber drainage-tubes . In former years most surgeons placed one or more of these in the dependent Drainage- parts of the area of operation, so that the blood or tubes, serum oozing from the injured tissues might find a ready escape . But to-day, except in dealing with a large abscess or other septic cavity, many surgeons make no See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision for drainage, but, bandaging the part beneath a pad of aseptic wool, put on so much pressure that any little leakage into the tissues is quickly absorbed . If a drainage-tube can be dispensed with, so much the better, for if it is not actually needed its presence keeps up irritation and delays prompt healing . But inasmuch as a tube if rightly placed in a deep wound is an See also:

• INSURANCE

insurance against the occurrence of " tension," and as it can easily be withdrawn at the end of twenty-four hours (even if it has served no useful purpose), it is improbable that the practice of drainage of freshly made cavities will ever be entirely given up . If the tube is removed after twenty-four hours its presencecan have done no harm and sometimes the large amount of fluid which it has drained from the wound affords clear evidence that its use has saved the patient discomfort and has probably expedited his recovery .

For septic cavities drainage-tubes are still used, but it must be remembered that the tube cannot remain long in position without causing and keeping up irritation; hence, even in septic cases, the modern surgeon discards the tube at the earliest possible moment . If after he has taken it out septic fluids collect, and the patient's temperature rises, it can easily be reinserted . But it is better to take out the tube too soon than to leave it in too long; this remark applies with special force to the treatment of abscess of the pleural cavity (empyema), in the treatment of which a drainage-tube has almost certainly to be employed . Poultices are now never used: they were apt to be foul and offensive, and were certainly septic and dangerous . If moisture and warmth are needed for a wound they can be obtained by the use of a See also:

• FOLD

fold of clean lint, or by some aseptic wool which has been wrung out in a hot solution of boracic or carbolic acid, and applied under some waterproof material, which effectually pre-vents evaporation and chilling . There was no special virtue in poultices made of See also:

• LINSEED

linseed See also:

• MEAL

meal or even of scraped See also:

• CARROT

carrot: they simply stored up the moisture and See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat . They possessed no possible advantage over the modern fomentation under oil-silk . Much less is heard now of so-called " bloodless " operations . The bloodlessness was secured by the part to be operated on—an See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm, for instance—being raised and compressed Bloodless from the fingers to the shoulder by successive turns operations, of an india-rubber See also:

• ROLLER

roller-bandage (See also:

• ESMARCH, JOHANNES FRIEDRICH AUGUST VON (1823-1908)

Esmarch's), the main artery of the limb being then compressed by the application of an elastic See also:

• CORD (derived through the Fr. corde, from the Lat. chorda, Gr. xop(5rt, the string of a musical instrument)

cord above the highest turn of the bandage . The bandage being removed, the operation was performed through bloodless tissues . But when it was completed and the elastic cord removed from around the upper part of the limb, a reactionary flow of blood took place into every small See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel which had been previously squeezed empty, so that though the operation itself had actually been bloodless, the wound could not be closed because of the occurrence of unusually free haemorrhage or troublesome oozing . A further objection to the application of such an elastic roller-bandage was that septic or tuberculous material might by chance be squeezed from the tissues in which it was perhaps harmlessly lying, forced into the blood vessels, and so widely disseminated through the body .

Esmarch's bandage is therefore but little used now in operative surgery . Instead, each bleeding point at an operation is promptly secured by a small pair of See also:

• NICKEL
• NICKEL (symbol Ni, atomic weight 58.68 (0=16))

nickel-plated clip-forceps, which generally have the effect, after being left on for a few minutes, of completely and permanently arresting the bleeding . These clips were specially introduced into practice by Sir See also:

• SPENCER
• SPENCER, HERBERT (1820-1903)
• SPENCER, JOHN CHARLES SPENCER, 3RD EARL (1782-1845)
• SPENCER, JOHNPOYNTZ SPENCER
• SPENCER, WILLIAM ROBERT (1769-1834)

Spencer See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

Wells, and it is no unusual thing for a surgeon to have twenty or See also:

• THIRTY

thirty pairs of them at hand during an extensive operation . Seeing how convenient, not to say indispensable, they are in such circumstances, the surgeon of to-day wonders how he formerly managed to get on at all without them . Biers's treatment by passive congestion is carried out by gently assisting the return of venous blood from a part of the body without in any way checking the arterial flow . In the case of tuberculous disease of the knee-joint, for instance, an elastic See also:

• BAND

band is gently placed round the thigh for several hours a day, and in disease of the See also:

• WRIST

wrist or elbow the girth is applied round the arm . The skin below becomes flushed, and the arterial blood which, as shown by the See also:

• PULSE

pulse, is still flowing into the affected part, is compelled to linger in the affected tissues, giving the serum and the white corpuscles time to exert their beneficial influence upon the disease . In the case of tuberculous, or septic, affections of the lymphatic glands of the neck, or of other parts where the constriction cannot be conveniently obtained, effective congestion can be secured by the use of cupping glasses . And if so be that suppuration is taking place in the interior of an inflamed gland, the cupping-glasses can be applied after a small puncture has been made into the softened part of the gland . In this way the whole of the broken-down material can be got away without the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of making an actual incision or of resorting to scraping . The method of inducing hyperaemia should be so conducted as to give the patient no pain whatever: it must not be carried out with excessive See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy . By means of the See also:

• RONTGEN, DAVID
• RONTGEN, WILHELM KONRAD (1845– )

Rontgen or X-rays (see X-See also:

• RAY (Lat. raia)
• RAY (or WRAY, as he wrote his name till 1670), JOHN (1628-1705)

RAY TREATMENT) the surgeon is able to procure a distinct See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

shadow-portrait of deeply-placed bones, so that he can be assured as to the presence or See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of fracture or dislocation, or of outgrowth of bone, or of bone-containing tumours .

By this means also he is able to locate with absolute precision the situation of a foreign body in the tissues—of a See also:

• COIN
• COIN (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign, all derived through the O. Fr. coing, and cuigne from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

coin in the See also:

• WINDPIPE

windpipe or gullet, of a broken piece of a needle in the hand, of a splinter cf See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass in the foot, or of a See also:

• BULLET (Fr. boulet, diminutive of boule, ball)

bullet deeply embedded in soft tissues or bone . This effect may be obtained upon a fluorescent See also:

• SCREEN (usually, but very doubtfully, connected with Lat. scrinium, a box for holding books, from scribere, to write; a connexion with Ger. Schranke, barrier, has been suggested)

screen or printed in a permanent form upon glass or See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper . The shadow is cast by a to- or See also:

• R2(rt-s2)

r2-in. spark from a See also:

• CROOKES, SIR WILLIAM (1832– )

Crookes vacuum tube . The rays of Rontgen find their way through dead and living tissues which are far beyond the reach of the rays of See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary light, and they are thus able even to reveal changes in the deeply placed hip-joint which have been produced by tuberculous disease . In examining an injured limb it is not necessary to take off wooden splints or bandages except in cases where the latter have been treated with plaster of paris, See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime-salts obstructing the rays and throwing a shadow . Thus the rays may pass through an ordinary uric acid calculus in the See also:

• KIDNEY

kidney or bladder; but if it contains salts of lime, as does the mulberry calculus (oxalate of lime), a definite shadow is cast upon the screen . The value of the X-rays is not limited to the elucidation of obscure problems such as those just indicated: they are also of therapeutic value; for example, in the treatment of certain forms of skin disease, as well as of cancer . Too much, however, must not be expected from them . For the treatment of a patch of tuberculous ulceration (See also:

• LUPUS (Lat. lupus, wolf)
• LUPUS, PUBLIUS RUTILIUS

lupus), or for a superficial cancerous sore (epithelioma), they may be of service, but in the treatment of a deeply-seated See also:

• MALIGNANT (Lat. malignus, evil-disposed, from maligenus)

malignant growth—as a cancer of the breast—they have not proved of value . Moreover, the X-rays sometimes cause serious burns of the skin; and although this happens less often now than was previously the case, still the frequent application of the rays is apt to be followed by cutaneous warty growths which are apt in turn to develop into cancer . In many cases in which the X-rays are used a more prompt and efficient means of treatment would probably be by excision . One great advantage which operative treatment by the knife must always have over the treatment by X-rays is that the secondary implication of the lymphatic glands can be dealt with at the same time .

And this, in many cases, is a matter of almost equal importance to that of removal of the cancer itself . The employment of See also:

• RADIUM (from Lat. radius, ray)

radium in surgery is still in its See also:

• INFANCY

infancy . Doubtless radium is a very powerful agent, but even if it were Radium. found of See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar value in treatment its cost would, for the present, put it out of the reach of most practitioners . Probably it will be found useful in the treatment of See also:

• NAEVUS

naevus, rodent ulcers and superficial malignant growths . As to what influence radium may have in the treatment of deeply-seated cancers it is as yet impossible even to guess . For those sad cases, however, which the practical surgeon is reluctantly compelled to admit as being beyond the reach of his operative skill, the influence of radium should be tried with determination and thoroughness . The therapeutic influence of radium may eventually be found to be great, or it may be disappointing . The fact that under direct royal patronage an institution has been established in London for the investigation of the See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical and therapeutic value of this newly discovered agent should satisfy every one that its properties will be duly inquired into and made known without See also:

• MYSTERY (Gr. µw(Trilpcov, from tcuvrm, an initiate, µfew, to shut the mouth)

mystery or charlatanism and absolutely in the interest of the people . But in the mean-while too much must not be expected from it as a surgical agent . (E .