See also:

• SURGERY
• SURGERY (Fr. chirurgie, from Gr. Xetpoupyfa, i.e. hand-work)

SURGERY (Fr. chirurgie, from Gr. Xetpoupyfa, i.e. See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand-See also:

• WORK

work)  , the profession and See also:

• ART

art of the surgeon (chirurgien), connected specially with the cure of diseases or injuries by operative See also:

• MANUAL

manual and instrumental treatment . See also:

• HISTORY

History.—See also:

• SURGERY
• SURGERY (Fr. chirurgie, from Gr. Xetpoupyfa, i.e. hand-work)

Surgery in all countries is as old as human needs . A certain skill in the stanching of See also:

• BLOOD

blood, the extraction of arrows, the binding up of wounds, the supporting of broken limbs by splints, and the like, together with an instinctive reliance on the healing See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of the tissues, has been See also:

• COMMON

common to men everywhere . In both branches of the Indo-See also:

• EUROPEAN

European stock surgical practice (as well as medical) reached a high degree of perfection at a very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . It is a See also:

• MATTER

matter of controversy whether the Greeks got their See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine (or any of it) from the See also:

• HINDUS

Hindus (through the See also:

• MEDIUM

medium of the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian priesthood), or whether the Hindus owed that high degree of medical and surgical knowledge and skill which is reflected in Charaka (1st See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century A.D.) and Susruta (2nd century) (commentators of uncertain date on the Yajur-Veda) to their contact with Western See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization after the See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

campaigns of See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander . The See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence in favour of the former view is ably stated by See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

Wise in the Introduction to his History of Medicine Among the Asiatics (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1868) . The See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence between the Susruta and the Hippocratic Collection is closest in the sections See also:

• RELATING

relating to the See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

ethics of medical practice; the description, also, of lithotomy in the former agrees almost exactly with the See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the Alexandrian practice as given by See also:

• CELSUS (c. A.D. 178)

Celsus . But there are certainly some dexterous operations described in Susruta (such as the rhinoplastic) which were of native invention; the elaborate and lofty ethical See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code appears to be of pure Brahmanical origin; and the copious materia medica (which included See also:

• ARSENIC (symbol As, atomic weight 75.0)

arsenic, See also:

• MERCURY
• MERCURY (MERCU1uus)
• MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight = 2oo)

mercury, See also:

• ZINC

zinc, and many other substances of permanent value) does not contain a single See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign source . There is evidence also (in, See also:

• ARRIAN (FLAvrus ARRIANUS)

Arrian, See also:

• STRABO (born c. 63 n.c.)

Strabo and other writers) that the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East enjoyed a proverbial reputation for medical and surgical See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom at the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of Alexander's invasion . We may give the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, then, to the Eastern See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Indo-European stock in a See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch of the rise of surgery, leaving as insoluble the question of the date of the See also:

• SANSKRIT

Sanskrit compendiums or compilations which pass under the names of two representative persons, Charaka and Susruta (the See also:

• DATES

dates assigned to these ranging as widely as 50o years on each See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian era) . The Susruta speaks throughout of a single class of practitioners who undertook both surgical and medical cases . Nor were Hlndu. there any fixed degrees or orders of skill within the profession; even lithotomy, which at See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria was assigned to specialists, was to be undertaken by any one, the leave of the See also:

• RAJA

raja having been first obtained .

The only distinction recognized between medicine and surgery was in the inferior See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of barbers, See also:

• NAIL (O. Eng. naegal, cf. Dutch, Ger., Swed. nagel; the word is also related to Lat. unguis, Gr. ovu, Sans. nakhas)

nail-trimmers, See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear-borers, tooth-drawers and phlebotomists, who were outside the Brahmanical See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste . Susruta describes more than one See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred-surgical See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments, made of See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel . They should have See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good handles and See also:

• FIRM

firm See also:

• JOINTS

joints, be well polished, and See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp enough to See also:

• DIVIDE

divide a See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair; they should be perfectly clean, and kept in See also:

• FLANNEL

flannel in a wooden See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box . They included various shapes of scalpels, bistouries, lancets, scarifiers, saws, See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone-nippers, See also:

• SCISSORS

scissors, trocars and needles . There were also See also:

• BLUNT, JOHN HENRY (1823–1884)
• BLUNT, JOHN JAMES (1794–1855)
• BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN (184o— )

blunt hooks, loops, probes (including a See also:

• CAUSTIC (Gr. rcavvraubs, burning)

caustic-holder), See also:

• DIRECTORS

directors, sounds, scoops and forceps (for polypi, &c.), as well as catheters, syringes, a rectal See also:

• SPECULUM

speculum and bougies . There were fourteen varieties of bandage . The favourite See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of splint was made of thin slips of See also:

• BAMBOO

bamboo boundtogether with See also:

• STRING

string and cut to the length required . Wise says that he had frequently used " this admirable splint," particularly for fractures of the thigh, humerus, See also:

• RADIUS

radius and ulna, and it was subsequently adopted in the See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army under the name of the " patent rattan-See also:

• CANE

cane splint." Fractures were diagnosed, among other signs, by crepitus . Dislocations were elaborately classified, and the See also:

• DIFFERENTIAL

differential diagnosis given; the treatment was by See also:

• TRACTION (Lat. trahere, to draw)

traction and countertraction, circumduction and other dexterous manipulation . Wounds were divided into incised, punctured, lacerated, contused, &c . Cuts of the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head and See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face were sewed . Skill in extracting foreign bodies was carried to a See also:

• GREAT

great height, the magnet being used for See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron particles under certain specified circumstances .

Inflammations were treated by the usual antiphlogistic regimen and appliances; venesection was practised at several other points besides the See also:

• BEND

bend of the See also:

• ELBOW

elbow; leeches were more often resorted to than the See also:

• LANCET (from Fr. lancette, dim. of lance, lance)

lancet; See also:

• CUPPING

cupping also was in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general use . Poulticing, fomenting and the like were done as at See also:

• PRESENT

present . Amputation was done now and then, notwithstanding the want of a good See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control over the See also:

• HAEMORRHAGE (Gr. atµa, blood, and prryvvvac, to burst)

haemorrhage; boiling oil was applied to the stump, with pressure by means of a See also:

• CUP (in O.E. cuppe; generally taken to be from Late Lat. cuppa, a variant of Lat. cupa, a cask, cf. Gr. KuaeXXov)

cup-formed bandage, See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch being sometimes added . Tumours and enlarged lymphatic glands were cut out, and an arsenical salve applied to the raw surfaces to prevent recurrence . Abdominal See also:

• DROPSY (contracted from the old word hydropisy, derived from the Gr. 154w¢; i Swp, water, and appearance)

dropsy and hydrocele were treated by tapping with a trocar; and varieties of See also:

• HERNIA (Lat. hernia, perhaps from Gr. Epvos, a sprout)

hernia were understood, omental hernia being removed by operation on the scrotum . Aneurisms were known, but not treated; the use of the ligature on the continuity of an artery, as well as on the cut end of it in a flap, is the one thing that a See also:

• MODERN

modern surgeon will See also:

• MISS

miss somewhat noticeably in the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient surgery of the Hindus; and the See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason of their backwardness in that matter was doubtless their want of familiarity with the course of the See also:

• ARTERIES (Gr. ap-rnpia, probably from a"spew, to raise, but popularly connected by the ancients with ai7P, air)

arteries and with the arterial circulation . Besides the operation already mentioned, the See also:

• ABDOMEN (a Latin word, either from abdere, to hide, or from a form adipomen, from adeps, fat)

abdomen was opened by a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short incision below the umbilicus slightly to the See also:

• LEFT

left of the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle See also:

• LINE

line for the purpose of removing intestinal concretions or other obstruction (laparotomy) . Only a small segment of the bowel was exposed at one time; the See also:

• CONCRETION

concretion when found was removed, the See also:

• INTESTINE (Lat. intestinus, internal, usually in neuter plural intestina. from intus, within)

intestine stitched together again, anointed with See also:

• GHEE (Hindostani ghi)

ghee and See also:

• HONEY (Chin. me ; Sansk. madhu, mead, honey; cf. A.S. medo, medu, mead; Gr. p Xt, in which 0 or b is changed into X; Lat. mel ; Fr. miel ; A.S. hung ; Ger. Honig)

honey, and returned into the cavity . Lithotomy was practised, without the See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff . There was a plastic operation for the restoration of the See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose, the skin being taken from the cheek adjoining, and the vascularity kept up by a See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge of See also:

• TISSUE (Fr. tissu, tissue, participle of tisser, Lat. texere, to weave)

tissue . The ophthalmic surgery included extraction of See also:

• CATARACT (from the Lat. form cataracta of the Gr. Karapplucrgss, a floodgate, or waterfall, properly something which rushes down)

cataract . Obstetric operations were various, including caesarean See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section and crushing the foetus .

The medication and constitutional treatment in surgical cases were in keeping with the general care and elaborateness of their practice, and with the copiousness of their materia medica . Ointments and other See also:

• EXTERNAL

external applications had usually a basis of ghee (or clarified See also:

• BUTTER (Lat. butyrum, Gr. 0obrvpov, apparently connected with $ous, cow, and rvpbs, cheese, but, according to the New English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin)

butter), and contained, among other things, such metals as arsenic, zinc, See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper, mercury and sulphate of iron . For every emergency and every known form of disease there were elaborate and See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute directions in thesastras, which were taught by the physician-priests to the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young aspirants . See also:

• BOOK

Book learning was considered of no use without experience and manual skill in operations; the different surgical operations were shown to the student upon See also:

• WAX

wax spread on a See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board, on gourds, cucumbers and other soft fruits; tapping and puncturing were practised on a leathern bag filled with See also:

• WATER

water or soft mud; scarifications and bleeding on the fresh hides of animals from which the hair had been removed ; puncturing and lancing upon the hollow stalks of water-lilies or the vessels of dead animals; bandaging was practised on flexible See also:

• MODELS

models of the human See also:

• BODY

body; sutures on See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather and See also:

• CLOTH

cloth; the plastic operations on dead animals; and the application of caustics and cauteries on living animals . A knowledge of See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

anatomy was held to be necessary, but it does not appear that it was systematically acquired by See also:

• DISSECTION (from Lat. dissecare, to cut apart)

dissection . Superstitions and theurgic ideas were diligently kept up so as to impress the vulgar . The whole body of teaching, itself the slow growth of much See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close observation and profound thinking during the vigorous period of Indo-See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan progress, was given out in later times as a See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation from See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven, and as resting upon an See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute authority . Pathological principles were not wanting, but they were derived from a purely arbitrary or conventional See also:

• PHYSIOLOGY (from Gr. 4 i s, nature, and koyos, discourse)

physiology (See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind, bile and phlegm); and the whole elaborate fabric of rules and directions, great though its utility must have been for many generations, was without the quickening power of reason and freedom, and became inevitably stiff and decrepit . The See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese appear to have been far behind the Hindus in their knowledge of medicine and surgery, notwithstanding that See also:

• CHINA

China profited at the same time as See also:

• TIBET, or THIBET

Tibet by Chinese. the missionary See also:

• PROPAGATION

propagation of See also:

• BUDDHISM

Buddhism . Surgery in particular had hardly See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed among them beyond the merest rudiments, owing to their religious respect for dead bodies and their unwillingness to draw blood or otherwise interfere with the living structure . Their anatomy and physiology have been from the earliest times unusually fanciful, and their surgical practice has consisted almost entirely of external applications . Tumours and boils were treated by scarifications or incisions .

The distinctive Chinese surgical invention is See also:

• ACUPUNCTURE (from Lat. acus, a needle, and pungere, to prick)

acupuncture, or the insertion of See also:

• FINE

fine needles, of hardened See also:

• SILVER

silver or See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold, for an See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch or more (with a twisting See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion) into the seats of See also:

• PAIN (from Lat. poena, Gr. robin, penalty, that which must be paid: O. Fr. peine)
• PAIN, BARRY (1867– )

pain or inflammation . Wise says that " the See also:

• NEEDLE (O. Eng. ncedl; the word appears in various forms in Teutonic languages, Ger. Nadel, Dutch naal, the root being ne-, to sew, cf. Ger. nahen, and probably Lat. nere, to spin, Gr. vi)ats, spinning)

needle is allowed to remain in that See also:

• PART

part several minutes, or in some cases of See also:

• NEURALGIA (Gr. veiipov, nerve, and iXyos, pain)

neuralgia for days, with great See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage See also:

• RHEUMATISM (from Gr. /56µa, flux)

rheumatism and chronic See also:

• GOUT

gout were among the localized pains so treated . There are 367 points specified where needles may be inserted without injuring great vessels and vital See also:

• ORGANS

organs . Cupping-vessels made of cow-See also:

• HORN
• HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu; cf. Gr. Kipas)
• HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor, trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno)
• HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742)
• HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT

horn have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs . On monuments and the walls of temples See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt/ay . are figures of patients bandaged, or undergoing operation at the hands of surgeons . In museum collections of Egyptian antiquities there are lancets, forceps, knives, probes, scissors, &c . See also:

• EBERS, GEORG MORITZ (1837-1898)

Ebers interprets a passage in the See also:

• PAPYRUS

papyrus discovered by him as relating to the operation of cataract . Surgical instruments for the ear are figured, and artificial See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth have been found in mummies . Mummies have also been found with well-set fractures . See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus describes Egypt, notwithstanding its fine See also:

• CLIMATE

climate, as being full of medical practitioners, who were all " specialists." The ophthalmic surgeons were celebrated, and practised at the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of See also:

• CYRUS
• CYRUS (Gr. KDpos; Pers. Kuru-sh; Babyl. Kurash; Hebr. Koresh)

Cyrus . See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek Surgery.—As in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of the Sanskrit medical writings, the earliest Greek compendiums on surgery See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness See also:

• CREEK
• CREEK (Mid. Eng. crike or creke, common to many N. European languages)

Creek, to a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long organic growth of knowledge and skill through many generations .

In the Homeric picture of society the surgery is that of the battlefield, and it is of the most meagre See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind . See also:

• ACHILLES
• ACHILLES (Gr. 'AxtXXeus)

Achilles is concerned about the restoration to See also:

• HEALTH

health of Machaon for the reason that his skill in cutting out darts and applying salves to wounds was not the least valuable service that a See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero could render to the Greek See also:

• HOST

host . Machaon probably represents an See also:

• AMATEUR (Lat. amator, lover)

amateur, whose See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste had led him, as it did See also:

• MELAMPUS

Melampus, to converse with See also:

• CENTAURS

centaurs and to glean some of their traditional wisdom . Between that See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of civilization and the date of the first Greek See also:

• TREATISES

treatises there had been a long See also:

• INTERVAL

interval of See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual progress . The surgery of the Hippocratic Collection (See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age' of See also:

• PERICLES (49o-429 B.C.)

Pericles) bears every evidence of finish and elaboration . The two treatises on Hippocratic fractures and on dislocations respectively are hardly Saraery, surpassed in some ways by the writings of the present See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical age . Of the four dislocations of the See also:

• SHOULDER (in O.E. sculder, cognate with Ger. Schulter, Dutch schouder, Swed. skuldra, &c; the root is unknown)

shoulder the displacement downwards into the axilla is given as the only one at all common . The two most usual dislocations of the femur were backwards on to the dorsum ilii and forwards on to the obturator region . Fractures of the spinous processes of the vertebrae are described, and caution advised against trusting those who would magnify that injury into fracture of the spine itself . Tubercles (e^bhara) are given as one of the causes of See also:

• SPINAL

spinal curvature, an anticipation of See also:

• POTT, AUGUST FRIEDRICH (1802–1887)
• POTT, PERCIVALL (1714–1788)

Pott's diagnosis . In all matters of treatment there was the same fertility of resource as in the See also:

• HINDU

Hindu practice; the most noteworthy point is that shortening was by many regarded as inevitable after See also:

• SIMPLE

simple fracture of the femur . Fractures and dislocations were the most See also:

• COMPLETE

complete chapters of the Hippocratic surgery; the whole See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine and See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical art of them had arisen (like See also:

• SCULPTURE
• SCULPTURE (Lat. sculptura, from sculpere, to carve, cognate with Gr. yXb4ew)

sculpture) with no help from dissection, and obviously owed its excellence to the opportunities of the See also:

• PALAESTRA (Gr. aaXaiarpa)

palaestra .

The next most elaborate See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter is that on wounds and injuries of the head, which refers them to a minute subdivision, and includes the depressed fracture and the contrecoup . Trephining was the measure most commonly resorted to, even where there was no See also:

• COMPRESSION

compression . Numerous forms of wounds and injuries of other parts are specified . Ruptures, piles, rectal polypi, See also:

• FISTULA (Lat. for a pipe or tube)

fistula in ano and prolapsus See also:

• ANI (anc. Abnicum)

ani were among the other conditions treated . The amputation or excision of tumours does not appear to have been undertaken so freely as in Hindu 'surgical practice; nor was lithotomy performed except by a specially See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person now and then . The diagnosis of See also:

• EMPYEMA (from Gr. iv, within, and srvov, pus)

empyema was known, and the treatment of it was by an incision in the intercostal space and evacuation of the pus . Among their instruments were forceps, probes, directors, syringes, rectal speculum, catheter and various kinds of cautery . Between the Hippocratic era and the See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding of the school of Alexandria (about 300 B.C.) there is nothing of surgical _~ progress to dwell upon . The Alexandrian See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch Al Period . , . exandrian stands out prominently by reason of the enthusiastic cultivation of human anatomy—there are allegations also of See also:

• VIVISECTION

vivisection—at the hands of Herophilus (335-280 B.C.) and Erasistratus (28o B.c.) . The substance of this See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement appears to have been precision of diagnosis (not unattended with pedantic minuteness), boldness of operative See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure, sub-See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of practice into. a number of specialities, but hardly a single addition to the stock of physiological or pathological ideas, or even to the traditional wisdom of the Hippocratic time .

" The surgeons of the Alexandrian school were all distinguished by the nicety and complexity of their dressings and bandagings, of which they invented a great variety." Herophilus boldly used the See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

knife even on See also:

• INTERNAL

internal organs such as the See also:

• LIVER (O. Eng. lifer; cf. cognate forms, Dutch lever, Ger. Leber, Swed. lefver, &c.; the O. H. Ger. forms are libara, lipora, &c.; the Teut. word has been connected with Gr. i'prap and Lat. jecur)

liver and See also:

• SPLEEN (Gr. o-1rXilv)

spleen, which latter he regarded " as of little consequence in the See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal See also:

• ECONOMY

economy." He treated retention of urine by a particular kind of catheter, which long See also:

• BORE

bore his name . Lithotomy was much practised by a few specialists, and one of them (Ammonius Lithotomos, 287 B.C.) is said to have used an See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument for breaking the See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone in the See also:

• BLADDER (from A.S. blaeddre, connected with bl¢wan, to blow, cf. Ger. blase)

bladder into several pieces when it was too ' large to. remove whole . A sinister See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of the time is that concerning See also:

• ANTIOCHUS

Antiochus, son of Alexander, See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of See also:

• SYRIA

Syria (15o B.C.), who was done to See also:

• DEATH

death by the lithotomists when he was ten years old, under the pretence that he had stone in the bladder, the instigator of the See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime being his See also:

• GUARDIAN

guardian and supplanter See also:

• DIODOTUS

Diodotus . The See also:

• TREATISE

treatise of Celsus, De re medica (reign of See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus), reflects the state of surgery in the ancient See also:

• WORLD

world for a period of several centuries: it is the best See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record, of the Alexandrian practice itself, and it may be taken to stand for the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman practice of the period following . Great See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

jealousy of Greek medicine and surgery was expressed by many of the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans of the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic, notably by See also:

• CATO, DIONYSIUS
• CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (234—149 B.c.)
• CATO, MARCUS PORCIUS (95-46 B.c.)
• CATO, PUBLIUS VALERIUS

Cato the See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

Elder (234-149 B.C.), who himself practised on his See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate according to the native traditions . His medical observations are given in De re rustica . In reducing_ dislocations he made use of the following See also:

• INCANTATION

incantation: " Huat hanat ista pista sista dainiato damnaustra." The first Greek surgeon who established himself in See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome is said to have been Archagathus, whose fondness for the knife and cautery at length led to his See also:

• EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere)

expulsion by the populace . It was in the person of See also:

• ASCLEPIADES

Asclepiades, the contemporary and friend of See also:

• CICERO

Cicero, that the Hellenic medical practice acquired a permanent footing in Rome . He confined his practice mostly to medicine, but he is credited with practising the operation oftracheotomy . He is one of those whom See also:

• TERTULLIAN (c. 155-c. 222)

Tertullian quotes as practising vivisections for the gratification of their curiosity (De anima, 15) . The' next figure in the surgical history is Celsus, who devotes the 7th and 8th books of his De re medial. exclusively See also:

• TOY
• TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL (1836– )

toy surgery . There is not much in these beyond the precepts of the Brahmanicalsastras Celsus. and the See also:

• MAXIMS, LEGAL

maxims and rules of Greek surgery .

Plastic operations for the 'restoration of the nose, lips and ears are described at' some length, as well as the treatment of hernia by taxis and operation ; in the latter it was recommended to apply the actual cautery to the See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal after the hernia had been returned . The celebrated description of lithotomy is that of the operation as practised long before in See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India and at Alexandria . The treatment of sinuses in various regions is dwelt upon, and in the case of sinuses of . the thoracic . See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall resection of the See also:

• RIB (from 0. Eng. ribb; the word appears' in many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Rippe, Swed. reb)

rib is mentioned . Trephining has the same prominent place assigned to it as in the Greek surgery . The resources of contemporary surgery may be estimated by the fact that subcutaneous urethrotomy was practised when the urethra was blocked by a calculus . Amputation of an extremity is described in detail for the first time in surgical literature . Mention is made of a variety of ophthalmic operations, which were done by specialists after the Alexandrian See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion . See also:

• GALEN (or GALENUS), CLAUDIUS
• GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD, FREIHERR VON (16o6-1678)

Galen's practice of surgery was mostly in the early part of his career (b . A.D . 130), and there is little of See also:

• SPECIAL

special surgical See also:

• INTEREST

interest in his writings, great as their importance (See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

Palm is for anatomy, physiology and the general doctrines of disease . Among the operations credited to him are resection of a portion of the sternum for See also:

• CARIES

caries and ligature of the temporal artery . It may be assumed that surgical practice was in a flourishing See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition all through the period of the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire from the accounts preserved by Oribasius of the great surgeons Antyllus, Leonides, See also:

• RUFUS, GAIUS VALGIUS
• RUFUS, LUCIUS VARIUS (c 74—14 B.c.)

Rufus and See also:

• HELIODORUS

Heliodorus .

Antyllus (A.D . 300} is claimed by Haser as one of the greatest of the world's surgeons; he had an operation for Roman aneurism (tying the artery above and below the See also:

• SAC

sac, and. evacuating its contents), for cataract, for the cure of See also:

• STAMMERING, or STUTTERING

stammering; and he treated contractures by something like tenotomy . Rufus and Heliodorus are said to have practised torsion for the See also:

• ARREST (Fr. arrester, arreeter, to stop or stay)

arrest of haemorrhage; but in later periods both that and the ligature appear to have given way to the actual cautery . Haser speaks of the operation for scrotal hernia attributed to Heliodorus as " a brilliant example of the surgical skill during' the empire." The same surgeon treated stricture of the urethra by internal section . Both Leonides and Antyllus removed glandular swellings of the See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck (strumae) ; the latter ligatured vessels before cutting them, and gives directions for avoiding the See also:

• CAROTID

carotid artery and jugular vein . Flap-amputations were practised by Leonides and Heliodorus . But perhaps the most striking See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration of the advanced surgery of the period is the freedom with which bones were resected, including the long bones, the See also:

• LOWER

lower See also:

• JAW (Mid. Eng. jawe, jowe and geowe, O. Eng. cheowan, connected with " chaw " and " chew," and in form with " jowl ")

jaw and the upper jaw . Whatever progress or decadence surgery may have experienced during the next three centuries is summed up in the authoritative See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine. treatise of See also:

• PAULUS
• PAULUS (older form PAur.Lus), LUCIUS AEMILIUS
• PAULUS, HEINRICH

Paulus of See also:

• AEGINA
• AEGINA (EGINA or ENGIA)

Aegina (A.D . 65o) . Of his seven books the. See also:

• SIXTH

sixth is entirely devoted to operative surgery, and the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth is largely occupied with surgical diseases . The importance of Paulus for surgical history during several centuries on each side of his own period will appear from the following remarks of See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis See also:

• ADAMS
• ADAMS, ANDREW LEITH (1827-1882)
• ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS (1807-1886)
• ADAMS, HENRY (1838— )
• ADAMS, HENRY CARTER (1852— )
• ADAMS, HERBERT (i858— )
• ADAMS, HERBERT BAXTER (1850—1901)
• ADAMS, JOHN (1735–1826)
• ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY (1767-1848)
• ADAMS, SAMUEL (1722-1803)
• ADAMS, THOMAS (d. c. 1655)
• ADAMS, WILLIAM (d. 162o)

Adams (1796-1861) in his See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation and commentary (ii . 247): " This book (bk. vi.) contains the most complete See also:

• SYSTEM

system of operative surgery which has come down to us from ancient times .

. Haly Abbas (d . A.D . 994) in the 9th book of his Practica copies almost everything from Paulus . Albucasis [Abulcasis] (loth century A.D.) gives more See also:

• ORIGINAL

original matter on surgery than any other Arabian author, and yet, as will be seen from our commentary, he isindebted for whole chapters to Paulus . In the Continens of Rhases, that See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious repository of ancient opinions on medical subjects, if there be any surgical See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information not to be found in our author it is mostly derived from Antyllus and Archigenes . As to the other authorities, although we will occasionally have to explain their opinions upon particular subjects, no one has treated of surgery in a systematical manner; fig even See also:

• AVICENNA

Avicenna, who treats so fully of everything else connected with medicine, is defective in his accounts of surgical operations; and the descriptions which he does give of them are almost all borrowed from our author . The accounts of fractures and dislocations given by See also:

• HIPPOCRATES

Hippocrates and his commentator Galen may be pronounced almost complete; but the information which they See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply upon most other surgical subjects is scanty." Paulus' sixth book, with the valuable commentary of Adams; brings the whole surgery of the ancient world to a See also:

• FOCUS (Latin for " hearth " or " fireplace ")

focus . Paulus is credited with the principle of See also:

• LOCAL

local depletion as against' general, with the lateral operation for stone instead of the mesial and with understanding the merits of a See also:

• FREE

free external incision and a limited internal, with the diagnosis of aneurism by See also:

• ANASTOMOSIS (a Greek word in which the second o is long, from avaaroµovv, to furnish with a mouth or outlet)

anastomosis,rwith an operation for aneurism like that of Antyllus, with amputation of the cancerous See also:

• BREAST (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. the Ger. Brust, possibly connected with an O. Sax. brustian, to bud)

breast by See also:

• CRUCIAL (from Lat. crux, a cross)

crucial incision, and with the treatment of fractured patella . The Arabians have hardly any greater merit in medicine than that of preserving intact the See also:

• BEQUEST (from 0. Eng. becwethan, to declare or express in words; cf. " quoth ")

bequest of the 'ancient world . Arabian . To surgery in particular their services are small first, because their See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion proscribed the practice of anatomy, and, secondly, because it was a characteristic of their See also:

• RACE

race to accept with equanimity the sufferings that See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell to them, and to decline the means of alleviation . The great mines of the Arabian school, Avicenna (98o-1o37) and See also:

• AVERROES [Abul - Walid Muhammad ibn - Ahmad Ibn-Muhammad ibn-Rushd] (1126-1198)

Averroes (1126-1198), are altogether unimportant for surgery .

Their one distinctively surgical writer was Abulcasim (d . 1122), who is chiefly celebrated for his free use of the actual cautery and of caustics . He showed a good See also:

• DEAL

deal of See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character in declining to operate on See also:

• GOITRE (from Lat. guttur, the throat; synonyms, Bronchocele, Derbyshire Neck)

goitre, in resorting to See also:

• TRACHEOTOMY

tracheotomy but sparingly, in refusing to meddle with See also:

• CANCER (" THE CRAB ")
• CANCER, LUIS (d. 1549)
• CANCER, or CARCINOMA (from Lat. cancer, Gr. KapKivwga, an eating ulcer)

cancer, and in evacuating large abscesses by degrees . For the five hundred years following the See also:

• WORK

work of Paulus of Aegina there is nothing to record but the names of a few See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval. practitioners at the court and of imitators or com- pilers . Meanwhile in western See also:

• EUROPE

Europe (apart from the Saracen civilization) a medical school had grown up at See also:

• SALERNO (anc. Salernum)

Salerno, which in the Toth century had already become famous . From it issued the Regimen salernitanum, a work used by the laity for several centuries, and the Compendium salernitanum, which circulated among the profession . The decline of the school dates from the founding of a university at See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples in 1224 . In its best period princes and nobles' resorted to it for treatment from all parts of Europe . The hotel dieu of See also:

• LYONS
• LYONS (Fr. Lyon)
• LYONS, COUNCILS OF
• LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858)
• LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817–1887)

Lyons had been founded in 56o, and that of See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris a century later . The school of See also:

• MONTPELLIER

Montpellier was founded in 1025, and became the rallying point of Arabian and Jewish learning . A good deal of the medical and surgical practice was in the hands of the religiousorders, particularly of the See also:

• BENEDICTINES, or BLACK MONKS

Benedictines, The practice of surgery by the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy was at length forbidden by the See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

Council of See also:

• TOURS

Tours (1163) . The surgical writings of the time were See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere reproductions of the classical or Arabian authors .

One of the first to go back to See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent observation and reflection was See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William of Saliceto, who belonged to the school of See also:

• BOLOGNA
• BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524–1608)

Bologna; his work (1275) See also:

• ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF

advocates the use of the knife in many places where the actual cautery was used by ancient See also:

• PRESCRIPTION

prescription . A greater name in the history of medieval surgery is that of his See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil Lanfranchi of See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan, who migrated (owing to See also:

• POLITICAL

political troubles) first to Lyons and then to Paris . He distinguished between arterial and venous haemorrhage, and is said to have used the ligature for the former . Contemporary with him in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France was See also:

• HENRI

Henri de Mondeville (Hermondaville) of the school of Montpellier, whose teaching is best known through that of his more famous pupil See also:

• GUY, THOMAS (1644–1724)

Guy de Chauliac; the Chirurgie of the latter bears the date of 1363, and marks the advance in precision• which the revival of anatomy by Mondino had made possible . Eighteen years before Lanfranchi came to Paris a See also: