SWITZERLAND  , a republican See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country of central See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, comprising the Swiss See also:

• CONFEDERATION (Fr. confederation, Lat. confoederatio, from foedus, a league, foederare, to form a league)

Confederation, and bounded N. by the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire, E. by See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria (except where the principality of See also:

• LIECHTENSTEIN

Liechtenstein intervenes), S. by See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, and W. by See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France . See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical Description.—Switzerland extends between the See also:

• PARALLELS

parallels 450 49' 2" and 470 48' 32" See also:

• LAT

lat . (See also:

• GREENWICH

Greenwich) and the meridians 5° 57' 26" and ro° 29' 40" See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long . (Greenwich) . It forms an irregular See also:

• QUADRILATERAL

quadrilateral, of which the greatest length from See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east to See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west is 2262 m., and the greatest breadth from See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north to See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south is nearly 137 M . (136.8) . It has, however, no proper physical unity, as it consists of a number of small districts, differing from each other widely in See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion, See also:

• ETHNOLOGY

ethnology, customs, &c., but See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound together in a See also:

• POLITICAL

political See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance, made originally for See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence against a common foe . It is therefore an artificial See also:

• LAND

land, just as its inhabitants See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form an artificial nation, though nowadays it is becoming more homogeneous in both respects . Its political boundaries thus do not coincide with those of nature . The entire See also:

• CANTON
• CANTON (borrowed from the Ital. cantone, a corner or angle)
• CANTON (more correctly KWANG-CHOW Fu)
• CANTON, JOHN (1718-1772)

canton of See also:

• TICINO (Fr. and Ger. Tessin)
• TICINO (Ger. Tessin, anc. Ticinus)

Ticino is south of the See also:

• ALPS

Alps, as are the valleys of Simplon (See also:

• VALAIS (Ger. Wallis, Ital. Vallese)

Valais), Mesocco, Bregaglia, Poschiavo and See also:

• MUNSTER
• MUNSTER, SEBASTIAN (1489-1552)

Munster (all in the See also:

• GRISONS (Ger. Graubunden)

Grisons); the whole canton 3 . The Swiss portion of the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of the Alps and this See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• NORTHERN

northern outlier run parallel to each other from the Mont Dolent to near See also:

• COIRE (Ger. Chur or Cur, Ital. Coira, Lat. Curia Raetorum, Romonsch Cuera)

Coire, while for a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short distance they actually unite near the See also:

• PIZZO

Pizzo Rotondo (west of the St Gotthard Pass), parting again near the Oberalp Pass (east of the St Gotthard) . Between these two great snowclad ranges flow two of the mightiest See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, the See also:

• RHONE
• RHONE (Fr. Rhone, Lat. Rhodanus)

Rhone towards the west and the See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine towards the east, their headwaters being only separated by the tangled See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass between the Pizzo Rotondo and the Oberalp Pass, which sends the See also:

• REUSS
• REUSS, EDOUARD GUILLAUME EUGENE (1804–18gr)

Reuss towards the north and the Ticino towards the south .

4 . To the north of this great northern outlier rises the See also:

• JURA
• JURA (" deer island ")

Jura range (q.v.), really a huge See also:

• SPUR (A.S. spura, spora, related to spornan, spurnan, to kick, spurn; cf. M.H.G. sporn, mod. Ger. Sporn)

spur of the Alps (with which it is connected by the Jorat range), while between the northern outlier and the Jura extends what may be called the plains or " See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau " of Switzerland, consisting all but wholly of the undulating valley of the See also:

• AAR, or AARE

Aar (below See also:

• THUN (Fr. Thoune)
• THUN, LAKE OF

Thun) with its numerous affluents . To that See also:

• RIVER

river valley we must add the valley of the Thur (a See also:

• DIRECT

direct affluent of the Rhine), that lies between the Aar See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin and the Rhine basin (the See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake of See also:

• CONSTANCE
• CONSTANCE (Ger. Konstanz or Costnitz)
• CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF
• CONSTANCE, LAKE OF (called by the Romans Lacus Brigantinus or lake of Bregenz, and now usually named in German Bodensee, as well as the " Swabian Sea ")

Constance) . We may thus roughly describe Switzerland (as it exists at the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time) as consisting of three great river valleys (Rhone, Rhine and Aar) with the smaller one of the Thur, which See also:

• EMERY (Ger. Smirgel)

Emery Wafter sr . The 3 See also:

• ORIGINAL

original Cantons(See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die (Mkantone)1291-1332 The 8 See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Cantons 1353-1481 - See also:

• IIII

IIII!II!IIIIIIII The 13 Cantons 15134798 (5 added 'between 1332 and 1363) (5 added between 1481 and 1513) Allied and Protected Districts '1 Subject Districts 'WA!!''•' See also:

• DATES

Dates of Confederation,AIliance pr See also:

• CONQUEST

Conquest,are shown thus:-1512 Subject States incorporated with Cantons are indicated by the word To with the date of See also:

• INCORPORATION (from Lat. incorporare, to form into a body)

incorporation:- To See also:

• BERN (Fr. Berne)

Bern 1536 liuil;ir, of See also:

• SCHAFFHAUSEN
• SCHAFFHAUSEN (Fr. Schaffhouse)

Schaffhausen and See also:

• PART

part of that of See also:

• BASEL (Fr. Bale)
• BASEL (Fr. Belle, but Basle is a wholly erroneous form; Ital. Basilea)
• BASEL, CONFESSION OF
• BASEL, COUNCIL OF

Basel are north of the Rhine, while a large part of the Grisons lies to the east of the Rhine basin, and Porrentruy is far down on the western slope of the Jura . But it is to be noted that all these exceptional cases were outside the limits of the Swiss Confederation up to 1798 . Putting them aside, the physical See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography of Switzerland may thus be described:- 1 . On the south runs the main chain of the Alps (q.v.), which is joined, at the Mont Dolent (12,543 ft.) in the chain of Mont See also:

• BLANC, (JEAN JOSEPH CHARLES) LOUIS (1811-1882)
• BLANC, MONT

Blanc, by the See also:

• LOWER

lower ranges that rise south of the Lake of See also:

• GENEVA
• GENEVA (Fr. Geneve, Ger. Genf, Ital. Ginevra, Late Lat. Gebenna, though Genava in good Latin)
• GENEVA, LAKE OF

Geneva, and which continues partly Swiss till See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close to the Stelvio Pass on the east . 2 . To the north of this main chain there is another great range of mountains (wholly Swiss) only slightly inferior in extent and height, which starts from the hills known as the Jorat range above See also:

• LAUSANNE

Lausanne, and culminates in the great snowy summits of the Bernese Oberland and of the See also:

• TODI (anc. Tuder)

Todi See also:

• GROUP

group, before trending to the north near Coire, and, after rising once more in the Santis group, See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

dies away on the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern See also:

• SHORE

shore of the Lake of Constance.all See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie to the north of the main chain of the Alps and include the region between the Alps and the Jura . If we examine matters more carefully we See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note that the Rhone and Rhine valleys are shut off from that of the Aar (and, of course, of the Thur) by the great northern outlier of the Alps, which consists of the Bernese Oberland and Todi Alps . Two wide and undulating valleys (Aar and Thur) and two deeply cut trenches (Rhone and Rhine) thus lie on the northern slope of the Alps, to the north and south respectively of the great northern outlier of the Alps .

The main chain cf the Alps rises in Swiss territory to the height of 15,217 ft. in the loftiest See also:

• SUMMIT

summit or Dufourspitze (wholly Swiss) of See also:

• MONTE

Monte See also:

• ROSA, CARL AUGUST NICHOLAS (1843-1889)
• ROSA, MONTE
• ROSA, SALVATOR (1615-1673)

Rosa, though the Dom (14,942 ft.), in the Mischabel range, between See also:

• ZERMATT

Zermatt and Saas, is the highest mountain mass which is entirely Swiss . The great northern outlier attains a height of 14,026 ft. in the Finsteraarhom (Bernese Oberland), while the lowest level (581 ft.) within the Confederation is on the Lago See also:

• MAGGIORE, LAGO (Lacus Verbanus of the Romans; Fr. Lac Majeur; Ger. Langensee)

Maggiore . The highest permanently inhabited See also:

• VILLAGE

village in Switzerland is Juf (6998 ft.), at the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the Avers valley (a tributary of the Hinter Rhine, Grisons), while the lowest is Ascona (666 ft.), on the Lago Maggiore and just south-west of See also:

• LOCARNO (Ger. Luggarus)

Locarno . According to the most See also:

• RECENT

recent calculations, the See also:

• TOTAL

total See also:

• AREA

area of Switzerland is 15,951 sq. m . (some 2500 sq. m. less than that of See also:

• SERVIA

Servia) . Of this 11,927.5 sq. m . (or 74.8%). are reckoned as " productive," forests occupying 3,390.9 sq. m. and See also:

• VINE

vine-yards 108.7 sq. m., the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder, or 8427.7 sq. m., consisting of arable and pasture land . Of the " unproductive " area of 4023.5 sq. m (or 25'2%) much consists of lakes and rivers, while glaciers See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover 7o9.7 sq. m . Approximately the Alps occupy one-sixtieth of this area, the Jura about one-tenth, and the " plateau " the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest . Of the entire area the great cantons of the Grisons, Bern and the Valais take up 7411.8 sq. m., or nearly one-See also:

• HALF

half, while if to them be added See also:

• VAUD (Ger. Waadt)

Vaud, Ticino and St See also:

• GALL (a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch gal, and Ger. Galle; the Indo-European root appears in Gr. xoXi,, and Lat. fel; possibly connected with " yellow," with reference to the colour of bile)
• GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH (1758-1828)

Gall the extent of these six (out of twenty-two) cantons is 10,527.6 sq. m., or almost two-thirds of the area of the Confederation . Not included in the total area of Switzerland are three small •" enclaves" (4 sq. m. in all), Btisingen and Verenahof (both in 'Schaffhausen) belonging to See also:

• BADEN
• BADEN, GRAND DUCHY OF

Baden, while Campione (opposite See also:

• LUGANO (Ger. Lauis)
• LUGANO, LAKE OF (also called CERESIO)

Lugano) is See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian . Switzerland See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders on many countries—France west and south-west, Italy south, Austria east (See also:

• TIROL (or TYROL 1)

Tirol and See also:

• VORARLBERG

Vorarlberg), and See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany north (See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria, See also:

• WURTTEMBERG

Wurttemberg, Baden and See also:

• ALSACE (Ger. Elsass)

Alsace) .

Switzerland sends its See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters to four great river basins (which drain to three different seas) in the following proportions: Rhine basin, 11,159 sq. m.; Rhone basin, 2768 sq. m.; Po basin, 1361 sq. m.; and See also:

• INN

Inn basin, 663 sq. m . The thirteen cantons which till 1798 formed the Confederation are all comprised in the Rhine basin, the ten See also:

• OLDEST

oldest (i.e. all before 1500) being within that of the Aar, and it was only after 1798 that certain Romonsch-, See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French- and Italian-speaking " See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies " and subject lands—with their river basins—were tacked on to them . Most of the great Swiss rivers, being in their origin See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere mountain torrents, tend to overflow their See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks, and hence much is required and has been done to prevent this by embanking them, and regaining arable land from them . So the Rhine (between See also:

• RAGATZ

Ragatz and the Lake of Constance), the Rhone, the Aar, the Reuss; and in particular we may mention the great See also:

• WORK

work on the See also:

• LINTH, or LIMMAT

Linth (1807–1816) carried out by Hans Konrad Escher, who earned by his success the surname of " Von der Linth," and on the Zihl near the lakes of See also:

• NEUCHATEL
• NEUCHATEL (Ger. Neuenburg)
• NEUCHATEL, LAKE OF

Neuchatel and See also:

• BIENNE, LAKE OF, or BIELERSEE
• BIENNE, or BIEL

Bienne, while the diversion of the Kander from its junction with the Aar at Thierachern to a channel by which it flows into the Lake of Thun was effected as See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early as 1714 . There are very many lakes, large and small, in Switzerland . The two most extensive, those of Geneva and of Constance, See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance each other, as it were, at the south-west and north-east corners of the land . But neither of these is wholly Swiss, this distinction being claimed by the next in See also:

• SIZE

size, that of Neuchatel (92.4 sq. m.), the Lago Maggiore (partly Swiss only) coming next in the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list, and being followed by the wholly Swiss lakes of See also:

• LUCERNE
• LUCERNE (Ger. Luzern; Ital. Lucerne)
• LUCERNE, LAKE OF
• LUCERNE, PURPLE MEDICK

Lucerne and of See also:

• ZURICH
• ZURICH (Fr. Zurich; Ital. Zurigo)

Zurich . Then come Lugano, Thun, Bienne, See also:

• ZUG
• ZUG (Fr. Zoug)
• ZUG, LAKE OF

Zug, See also:

• BRIENZ, LAKE OF

Brienz, See also:

• MORAT (Ger. Murten)

Morat, the See also:

• WALENSEE

Walensee, and See also:

• SEMPACH

Sempach (51 sq. m.) . These fourteen only are over 4 sq. m. in extent . Eleven of them are in the Rhihe basin (also in that of the Aar), two (Maggiore and Lugano) in that of the Po, and one (Geneva) in that of the Rhone . There are no large lakes in the Swiss portion of the Inn basin, the most extensive being that of 5ils (11 sq. m.) . Of the smaller lakes those best known to travellers are the Daubensee (near the summit of the Gemmi), the Oeschinensee (at the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the Blumlis See also:

• ALP

Alp range) and the Marjelensee, formed by the damming up of the waters of the Great Aletsch See also:

• GLACIER
• GLACIER (adopted from the French; from glace, ice, Lat. glacies)

glacier by a huge lateral See also:

• MORAINE

moraine .

Alpine tarns are innumerable . Of the countless waterfalls in Switzerland those of the Rhine (near Schaffhausen) have See also:

• VOLUME

volume but not height, while the See also:

• REVERSE

reverse is the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case in varying degrees with those of the Aar at the Handegg, of the See also:

• REICHENBACH
• REICHENBACH, GEORG VON (1772–1826)

Reichenbach, of Pissevache, and particularly of the Staubbach, a mere See also:

• THREAD (0. Eng. praed, literally, that which is twisted, prawan, to twist, to throw, cf. " throwster," a silk-winder, Ger. drehen, to twist, turn, Du. draad, Ger. Draht, thread, wire)

thread of See also:

• WATER

water falling clear of a cliff of great height . There are said to be 1077 glaciers in Switzerland, but it is really impossible to estimate the number accurately, as practically all are now in See also:

• RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back)

retreat, and it is not easy to say whether an isolated fragment of See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice is or is not entitled to See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank as an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent glacier . From them flow all the more important Swiss rivers and streams . Yet their See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution is very unequal, for eleven cantons (just one-half of the Confederation) have none . The Valais heads the list with 375 sq. m., then come the Grisons (138.6), Bern (111.3), See also:

• URI

Uri (44.3), See also:

• GLARUS (Fr. Glaris)

Glarus (13.9) and Ticino (13.1) . The five others (See also:

• UNTERWALDEN

Unterwalden, Vaud, St Gall, See also:

• SCHWYZ
• SCHWYZ (modern spelling Schwiz)

Schwyz and See also:

• APPENZELL

Appenzell) boast of 13.3 all together . The three longest glaciers in the Alps are all In the eat northern outlier (not in the main chain)—the Great Aletsch (I6} m.), the Fiescher and the Unteraar (each to m.) . In the main chain the Gorner (9; m.) is the longest . Of glaciers covering an area of over 6 sq. m. no fewer than 17 are in Switzerland, as againsttwo each in the French portion of the chain of Mont Blanc and in the Eastern Alps . Forests cover 21.2 % (3390.99 sq. m.) of the total area of Switzerland . Of the six most extensive cantons five are also at the head in the See also:

• MATTER

matter of forests: Bern (591 sq. m.), the Grisons (503), Vaud (320), the Valais (297.4) and Ticino (267.2) .

St Gall (157) ranks in this respect after Zurich (180.8) and See also:

• AARGAU (Fr. Argovie)

Aargau (172), while the only other cantons with over too sq. m. are Lucerne (120.4), See also:

• FRIBOURG [Ger. Freiburg]

Fribourg (119) and See also:

• SOLEURE
• SOLEURE (Ger. Solothurn)

Soleure (111.3), the lowest See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place being taken by Geneva (9.9) . By far the greater part (67 %) of the See also:

• FOREST

forest area belongs to the communes or private corporations, while 28.5% is in the hands of private individuals (much of this having become private See also:

• PROPERTY

property in the time of See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon I.), but only 4.5 % is in the hands of the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, in consequence of the suppression of many monasteries . The communes own 94.3% of the forest area in the Valais, private individuals 78.8% in Lucerne, and the state 16% in Schaffhausen . Schaffhausen and the Jura cantons are the most wooded in proportion to their area, while at the other end of the See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale are the towns of Geneva and Basel, and the barren canton of Uri . The great floods of 1834, 1852 and 1868 See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to the negligent See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of the forests, considered specially as a See also:

• PROTECTION

protection against damage due to the forces of nature . A forestry See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department was created In the See also:

• POLYTECHNIC (Gr. aroWus, many, and rEXvn, an art)

polytechnic school in Zurich when it was opened in 1855 . The Federal Constitution of 1874 (See also:

• ART

art . 24) handed over to the Confederation the oversight of the forests " in the high mountains," this being interpreted to mean the Alps with their spurs, but not to include the Jura, and a See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of 1876 was enacted to carry out this task . In 1897 the See also:

• LIMITATION, STATUTES OF

limitation mentioned above was struck out, so that the Confederation now has oversight of all forests within its territory, a law of 1902 regulating in detail the whole subject . Since 1876 much has been done, either directly by the Confederation or indirectly by subsidizing the efforts of the cantons, to reafforest districts where the trees had been recklessly cut down, and to ensure the proper administration of forests generally . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—The greater part of Switzerland is occupied by the belts of folded See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock which constitute the Alps and the Jura (q.v.) . The central See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain, however, is covered by nearly undisturbed deposits of Oligocene and See also:

• MIOCENE

Miocene See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, concealed in many places by glacial, alluvial and other accumulations of later date .

Both the Oligocene and the Miocene beds are, for the most part, of fresh-water or brackish-water origin, but the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the Miocene See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series is formed of marine deposits . During this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period an See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm of the Mediterranean spread up the valley of the Rhone . It reached its maximum See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension during the middle portion of the Miocene period, when it appears to have stretched continuously along the See also:

• OUTER

outer border of the Alps from the present Golfe du See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

Lion into Austria; but at an earlier and a later date it was represented in Switzerland only by a series of brackish-water lagoons or fresh-water lakes . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—In Switzerland, where the height above See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-level ranges from 581 ft . (Lago Maggiore) to 15,217 ft . (Monte Rosa), we naturally find very many climates, from the regions of See also:

• OLIVES, MOUNT OF, or MOUNT OLIVET ("Opus 'EXc uwos or riov 'EXauav; mod. Jebel-et-Tur)

olives, vines, oaks and beeches, pines and firs, to those of the high mountain pastures, rhododendrons, and of eternal See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow . It has been reckoned that, while in Italian Switzerland See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter lasts only three months, at Glarus (1578 ft.) it lasts four, in the See also:

• ENGADINE (Ger. Engadin; Ital. Engadina; Ladin, Engiadina)

Engadine (5945 to 3406 ft.) six, on the St Gotthard (6936 ft.) eight, on the Great St See also:

• BERNARD, CHARLES DE
• BERNARD, CLAUDE (1813-1878)
• BERNARD, JACQUES (1658--1718)
• BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE (1S2o—1882)
• BERNARD, SAINT
• BERNARD, SAINT (Iogo-1153)
• BERNARD, SIMON (1779—1839)
• BERNARD, SIR THOMAS, BART

Bernard (8111 ft.) nine, and on the St Theodule Pass (10,899 ft.) practically always . The highest mean See also:

• ANNUAL

annual temperature (53° F.) in Switzerland is naturally that at Lugano (909 ft.), while at Bevers (5610 ft., Upper Engadine) the lowest mean temperature in winter is -14° F., but the highest in summer is 77° F., an immense difference . At See also:

• MONTREUX

Montreux the annual mean is 50°, at See also:

• SION [Ger. Sitten]

Sion, Basel, Geneva and Coire about 49°, at Zurich 48° at Bern and Lucerne 47.5°, at St Gall 45°, at See also:

• DAVOS (Romonsch Tavau, a name variously explained as meaning a sheep pasture or simply " behind ")

Davos 37.5°, at Sils-Maria 34.5 and on the Great St Bernard 29° . Of course many factors, such as the shape of the ground, the sheltered position of the place, the degree of exposure to See also:

• SUNSHINE

sunshine, counterbalance the mere height at which the See also:

• TOWN

town is situated . The snow-clad Alps of course have the heaviest See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain- or snow-fall in Switzerland, this being estimated at 89.7 in. per annum . The greatest actually recorded rainfall (87.3 in.) was on the See also:

• SAN

San Bernardino Pass (6769 ft.), while the lowest (21.7 in.) was at Sierre(1767 ft., Valais) .

At Lugano the See also:

• AVERAGE

average annual rainfall is 65.4 in., on the Great St Bernard 48.7 in., at Lucerne 45.6 in., at Montreux 42.6 in., at Sils-Maria 37 in., at Bern and Davos 36.6 in., and at Basel, Coire and Geneva about 32.7 in . It has been shown by careful observations that the rain- or snow-fall is greatest as we approach the Alps, whether from the north or the south, the flanks of the great ranges and the valleys opening out towards the plains receiving much more rain than the high Alpine valleys enclosed on all sides by lofty ridges . Thunderstorms generally vary in frequency with the amount of rainfall, being most common near the great ranges, and often very See also:

• LOCAL

local . The floods caused by excessive rainfall are some-times very destructive, as in 1834, 1852 and 1868, while the same cause leads to landslips, of which the most remarkable have been those of the Rossberg above Goldau (1806), at Evionnaz (1835) and at See also:

• ELM

Elm (1881) . The Ftihn (q.v.) is the most remarkable local See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind . For all these reasons Switzerland has many varieties of climate; and, while, owing to the distribution of the rainfall, the Ticino and Aar valleys are very fertile, the two great trenches between the main chain and its north outlier, though warm, are less productive, as the water comes from the rivers and not from the skies . See also:

• PEOPLE

People.—The first estimate of the See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of Switzerland with any pretence to accuracy was that of 1817, which put the number at 1,687,900 . The first See also:

• REGULAR

regular See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census took place in 1836 to 1838, but was therefore not synchronous, while it was also not very systematic—the number was put at 2,190,258 . That of 185o was better organized, while in r86o the census was declared decennial, a slight alteration being made as to that of 1888 for See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical reasons . The following was the number of the population usually See also:

• RESIDENT

resident (the number of those actually present was also taken, but all detailed subdivisions refer only to the residents): in 185o, 2,392,740; in 186o, 2,510,494; in 1870, 2,6J5,001; in 1880, 2,831,787; in 1888, 2,917,754; and 1n 1900, 3,315,443 . The See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density per square mile was as follows: 150 in 185o; 157. in 186o; 159 in 1870; 177 in '88o; 182 in 1888; and 207 in 1900 . The increase in the whole of the country from 1850 to 1900 was 39% .

Thirteen cantons showed an increase lower than this average, the lowest of all being Aargau, Glarus and Lucerne; while in Bern the increase of the towns did not counterbalance the diminution in the country districts . The nine cantons which increased above the average See also:

• RATE

rate did so either owing to See also:

• SPECIAL

special circumstances (e.g. the construction of the Simplon railway in the Valais), or because their See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries were very flourishing (e.g . St Gall), or because they contain great towns (e.g . Zurich) . The highest rates of increase were shown by Geneva (107% increase) and the half canton of See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

Urban Basel (278% increase) . As to the actual distribution of the population, the Alpine regions are the sparsest generally (with the exception of the Outer See also:

• RHODES
• RHODES, CECIL JOHN (1853-1902)
• RHODES, JAMES FORD

Rhodes of Appenzell), the Jura region has a much higher ratio, while the densest region of all is the Swiss plateau . The strong attraction of the towns is shown by the facts that between 1850 and 'goo the population of the nineteen largest nearly tripled, while, in 'goo, of the 187 " political districts " in Switzerland 41 showed a decrease, and they were all exclusively rural . The shifting of the population within the country is also proved when we note that in 1900 but 38.5% of the Swiss citizens inhabited their See also:

• COMMUNE (Med. Lat. communia, Lat. communis, common)
• COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

commune of See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth, though the proportion was 64% in '85o . If we consider the different cantons, we find that in 1900 31.5% (in 1850 but 26.4%) lived in another commune within their canton of birth, while 18.4% (as against 6.6% in 185o) dwelt in •a canton other than their canton of birth . To sum up, in 185o, out of the 25 cantons and half cantons, no fewer than 21 had a See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of citizens living in their commune of birth, while in 1900 the number was but II, and those all rural cantons . Of the 3164 communes (or See also:

• CIVIL

civil parishes) in Switzerland, only 21 in 1900 had a population exceeding 'o,000, while 20 had under 50 inhabitants . If we look at the height of the communes above the sea-level, we find that there were but 3 (with a population of 463 souls) above 1900 metres (2953 ft.), while 68 (with a total population of 188,394) were below 300 metres (984 ft.) .

The number of inhabited houses See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose from 347,327 in 186o (the number was not taken in 1850) to 434,084 in 1900,. while that of See also:

• SEPARATE

separate households mounted from 485,087 in 185o (528,105 in 1860) to 728,920 In 1900 . The non-Swiss See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element of the population increased from 3% in 185o to 11.6% in 1900, and its number from 71,570 in '85o to 383,424 in 1900 . The Germans are the most numerous; next In See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order come Italians, French and Austrians . In 1900 there were 3535 See also:

• BRITISH

British subjects resident in Switzerland, and 1559 citizens of the See also:

• UNITED

United States . Of course most of the non-Swiss are found in the towns, or in rural districts where any great railway See also:

• LINE

line is being constructed . The See also:

• EMIGRATION (from Lat. emigrare; e, ex, out of, and migrare, to depart)

emigration of Swiss beyond seas was but 1691 in 1877, though it rose in 1883 to 13,502 (the maximum as yet attained) . Then the number See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell See also:

• PRETTY

pretty steadily till 1899 (2493), then rose again, and in 1906 was 5296 . About 89% go to the United States, and about 6% to the See also:

• ARGENTINE

Argentine See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Republic (mainly from the French-speaking cantons) . Bern, Zurich, . Ticino, the town of Basel and St Gall are the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief cantons which furnish emigrants . In the matter of religion, the Protestants formed 59.3% in 185o and 57.8 % in 1900, and the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman Catholics (including the " See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian " or " Old " Catholics, who arose in 1874) 40.6% and 41.6% respectively, while the See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews increased from ' % in '85o to 4% in 'goo—the remainder (other religions or none) being 2% in '86o (not reckoned separately in 1850) and in 1900 . Ten and a half cantons have a majority of Protestants, while in the rest the " Catholics " have the upper See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand .

The same proportion prevailed in 185o, See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save that then Geneva had a See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant majority, whereasin 1870 already the balance had shifted, owing to the number of immigrants from France and Italy . As to See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages habitually spoken, Switzerland presents a very variegated picture . By the Federal Constitutions of 1848 (art . 109) and 1874 (art . 116), German, French and Italian are recognized as " See also:

• NATIONAL

national languages," so that debates in the Federal See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament may be carried on in any of the three, while Federal See also:

• LAWS

laws, decrees, &c., appear also in the three . The old See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical dialects of Romonsch and Ladin (nearly confined to the canton of the Grisons, q.v.) enjoy no political recognition by the Confederation, are largely maintained by artificial means in the shape of See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies founded for their preservation, and are not even in the majority (which is German) in the Grisons . Of the other 21 cantons, all have a German-speaking majority save 6—French prevails in Fribourg, Vaud, the Valais, Neuchatel and Geneva, and Italian in Ticino . Since the census of 188o, when detailed inquiries as to language were made for the first time, there has been a certain amount of shifting, as is shown by the following figures . German was spoken by 71.3 of the population in 188o, by 71.4 in 1888 and by 69.8 in 1900; the figures for French are respectively 21.4, 21.8 and 22, and for Italian 5.7, 5.3 and 6.7, while Romonsch fell from 1.4 to 1.3 and 1.2 % . " Other languages " were 2, 2 and 3% . Thus in 1900 there were nearly 70% of German-speaking persons, as against nearly . 30 % who spoke one or other of the See also:

• ROMANCE

Romance See also:

• TONGUES, GIFT OF, or GLOSSOLALIA (yXwova, tongue, aXeiv, speak)

tongues .

The most interesting cases are the cantons of Fribourg (q.v.) and the Valais (q.v.), in which French is advancing at the expense of German . Chief Political Divisions and Towns.—When considering Switzerland it must never be forgotten that, strictly speaking, the only political " divisions " are the 187 " districts " into which the cantons are divided (Bern has 30, Vaud 19 and St Gall 15, no others having over 15) . These are administrative districts, created for political purposes . The cantons themselves are not " divisions " but See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign states, which have formed an alliance for certain purposes, while they are built up out of the 3164 " communes," which are really the political See also:

• UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF
• UNITS, PHYSICAL

units . Of the 22 cantons,' 3 are subdivided—Unterwalden (from before 1291) into Obwalden and Nidwalden, and Appenzell (since 1597) into the Outer Rhodes and the Inner Rhodes, while Basel (since 1833) forms urban Basel (the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city) and rural Basel (the country districts) . The Swiss political See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital is Bern (by virtue of a Federal law of 1848), while the Federal Supreme Tribunal is (since its See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation in 1874) at Lausanne, and the Federal Polytechnic School (since it was opened in 1855) at Zurich . In 1900 there were 19 towns in Switzerland which had a population exceeding 10,000 souls, all having increased very much within the previous years . The following are the six largest, the figures L '85o being enclosed within brackets: Zurich, 150,703 (35,483); Basel, 109,161 (27,844) ; Geneva, 104,796 (42,127), Bern, 64,227 (27,558); Lausanne, 46,732 (17,108), and La Chaux de Fonds, 35,968 (13,659) . Thus Geneva was first in '85o, but only third in 1900 . Thirteen of these nineteen towns are cantonal capitals, though La Chaux de Fonds, See also:

• WINTERTHUR

Winterthur, Bienne, Tablat (practically a suburb of St Gall), Le See also:

• LOCLE, LE

Locle and See also:

• VEVEY [German Vivis]

Vevey are not, while no fewer than twelve cantonal capitals (Sion, See also:

• BELLINZONA (Ger. Bellenz)

Bellinzona, Aarau, See also:

• ALTDORF

Altdorf, Schwyz, See also:

• FRAUENFELD

Frauenfeld, Glarus, See also:

• LIESTAL

Liestal, See also:

• SARNEN

Sarnen, See also:

• STANS

Stans, Appenzell and Zug) are below this limit . It is reckoned that while the 19 Swiss towns having over lo,000 inhabitants had in 185o a population of 255,722, that number had swollen in 1900 to 742,205 . Communications.--The See also:

• CARRIAGE

carriage roads of Switzerland were much improved and increased in number after a strong Federal See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government was set up in 1848, for it largely subsidized cantonal undertakings .

In the course of the lgth See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century many splendid roads were carried over the Alpine passes, whether within or leading from Swiss territory; in the latter case with See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial aid from Italy (or till 1859 Austria, as the See also:

• MISTRESS

mistress of the Milanese) . The earliest in date was that over the Simplon (1800-1807), while others were opened respectively over the Furka (7992 ft.) in 1867, to the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the Great St Bernard (8111 ft.) in 1893, over the Grimsel (7100 ft.) in 1895, and over the Klausen Pass (6404 ft.) in 'goo . The highest carriage road entirely within Switzerland is that over the Umbrail Pass (82,42 ft.), opened in 1901, and leading from the Swiss upper Munster valley to close to the Stelvio . The first Swiss lake over which a steamer plied regularly was that of Geneva (1823), followed by Constance (1824), Lago Maggiore (1826), Neuchatel (1827), Thun (1835), Lucerne (1835) and ' The cantons are—Aargau, Appenzell, Basel, Bern, Fribourg, Geneva, Glarus, Grisons, Lucerne, Neuchatel, St Gall, Schaffhausen, Schwyz, Soleure, See also:

• THURGAU (Fr. Thurgovie)

Thurgau, Ticino, Unterwalden, Uri, Valais, Vaud, Zug, Zurich (see separate articles) . Brienz (1839) . The first railway opened within Switzerland was that (14 M. long) from Zurich to Baden in Aargau (1847), though the Swiss See also:

• BIT (from the verb " to bite," either in the sense of a piece bitten off, or an act of biting, or a thing that bites or is bitten)

bit of that from Basel to See also:

• STRASSBURG, or STRASBURG (French Strasbourg)

Strassburg had been opened in 1844 . From 1852 to 1872 the cantons granted concessions for the See also:

• BUILDING

building of See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways to private companies, but from 1872 onwards the conditions were other and the lines were constructed under Federal supervision . In the 'fifties and 'sixties many lines were built, but not always according to See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound financial principles, so that in 1878 the great " National Railway " became bankrupt . Hence the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of the state See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase of the chief lines made considerable progress, so that in 1898 such a See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme was accepted by the Swiss people . Accordingly in 1901 most of the great lines became Federal railways, and the Jura-Simplon in 1903, while the Gotthard line became Federal in 1909 . This state ownership only applies to the main lines, not to the secondary lines or to the mountain See also:

• COG

cog-See also:

• WHEEL (0. Eng. hweol, hweohl, &c., cognate with Icel. hjol, Dan. hiul, the Indo-European root is seen in Sanskrit chakra, Gr. r in Aos, circle, whence " cycle ")
• WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE

wheel railways (of which the first was that from Vitznau up the Rigi, 1871) now so widespread throughout the country . The highest point as yet attained in Switzerland by a mountain railway is the Eismeer station (10,371 ft.) of the line towards the See also:

• JUNGFRAU

Jungfrau .

Many tunnels have been pierced through the Swiss Alps, such as the St Gotthard (1882), the Albula (1903) and the Simplon (1906) . The highest line carried over a Swiss pass is that over the Little Scheidegg (6772 ft.) . Industries.—a . Of the Land . If we look at the annual turnover there is no doubt that the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal Swiss See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry is that of the entertainment of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign visitors, for its See also:

• GROSS

gross receipts are larger than those of any other See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch . It appears from the See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official See also:

• STATISTICS

statistics that in 1905 its gross receipts amounted to rather over £7,500,000 (as against about £4,500,000 in 1894, and rather over £2,000,000 in 188o), the See also:

• NET

net profit being nearly £1,500,000 (as against £656,000 and nearly £300,000 respectively), while in 1905 the capital invested in this industry was rather over £31,000,000 (as against £20,750,000 and £12,750,000 respectively) . In 1905 there were in Switzerland 1924 hotels (of which 402 were in Bern and 358 in the Grisons) specially built for the See also:

• ACCOMMODATION (Lat. accommodare, to make fit, from ad, to, cum, with, and modus, measure)

accommodation of foreign visitors, containing 124,068 beds, and employing 33,480 servants (the See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers for 1894 and 188o are 1693 and 1002, 88,634 and 58,137, and 23,997 and 16,022 respectively) . Part of this increase is due to the See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion of visiting Switzerland in winter for See also:

• SKATING (Dutch schaats, a skate)

skating, See also:

• TOBOGGANING (Micmac Indian, tobaakan, sledge)

tobogganing, skiing, &c . Of the actual " productive " See also:

• SOIL

soil about two-thirds is devoted to arable or pasturage purposes, but the latter branch is by far the more important, occupying about 83 % of this two-thirds, for Switzerland is much more a See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral than an agricultural country . In 1906 the number of See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle was officially put at 1,497,904 (as against 1,340,375 in 1901 and 993,291 in 1866) . In summer they are supported on the numerous mountain pastures or " alps " (see Am's, 2), which number 4778, and are of an estimated capital value of rather over £3,000,000, while in winter they are fed on the See also:

• HAY
• HAY (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Heu, Dutch hooi; the root from which it is derived, meaning " to cut," is also seen in " to hew "; cf. " hoe ")
• HAY, GEORGE (1729—1811)
• HAY, GILBERT
• HAY, JOHN (1838–1905)

hay mown on the lower meadows or See also:

• PURCHASED

purchased from outside . Two main breeds of cattle are found in Switzer-land, the dun See also:

• RACE

race (best represented by, the cattle of Schwyz) and the dappled race (of which the Simme valley beasts are of the red and See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, and those of the See also:

• GRUYERE (Ger. Greyerz)

Gruyere of the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black and white variety) .

The best Swiss cheeses are those of the Emmenthal and of the Gruyere, while the two principal condensed See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk factories (Nestle at Vevey and that at Cham) are now united . It should be noted that the proportion of the land devoted to pastoral pursuits increases, like the rainfall, from the west and north-west to the east and north-east, so that it is highest (nearly 90%) in Appenzell and St Gall . As regards other domestic animals, the number of See also:

• SWINE

swine increased from 304,428 in 1866 to 566,974 in 1896 (the maximum recorded), but in 1906 fell to 548,355 . The number of goats has remained pretty steady (359,913 in 1906 to 375,482 in 1866, the maximum, 416,323, being attained in 1886), but that of See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep has decreased from 447,001 in 1866 to 209,443 in 1906 . It is stated that but 14% of the " productive " area of Switzerland is See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn-growing, this proportion being however doubled in Vaud . Hence for its See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply the country is largely dependent on its imports, the See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home supply sufficing for 153 days only . See also:

• TOBACCO

Tobacco is grown to a certain extent, especially near Payerne in the Broye valley (Vaud) and in Ticino, while more recently beetroot has been cultivated for the purpose of manufacturing See also:

• SUGAR

sugar . See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

Fruit and vegetables are made into jams and concentrated foods at Lenzburg and Kemptthal, while kirschwasser (See also:

• CHERRY

cherry See also:

• BRANDY

brandy) is made in Zug . Forests cover about 28i % of the " productive " area of Switzerland . They are now well cared for, and produce considerable profits . Vineyards in Switzerland now cover 108.