See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root meaning to See also:

• WOUND (O. Eng. wund,connected with a Teutonic verb, meaning to strive, fight, suffer, seen in O. Eng. winnan, whence Eng. " win ")

wound)  , a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• TERM

term for a See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand weapon of See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal, characterized by a longish blade, and thus distinct from all missile weapons on the one hand, and on the other hand from See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff weapons—the See also:

• PIKE
• PIKE, ZEBULON MONTGOMERY (1779-1813)

pike, See also:

• BILL

bill, halberd and the like—in which the metal See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head or blade occupies only a fraction of the effective length . The handle of a See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword provides a grip for the hand that wields it, or sometimes for two hands; it may add See also:

• PROTECTION

protection, and in most patterns does so to a greater or less extent . Still it is altogether subordinate to the blade . For want of a metal-headed See also:

• LANCE

lance or See also:

• AXE (0. Eng. aex; a word common, in different forms, in the Teutonic languages, and akin to the Greek 41v17; the New English Dictionary prefers the spelling " ax ")

axe, which indeed were of later invention, a sharpened See also:

• POLE (FAMILY)
• POLE, REGINALD (1500-1558)
• POLE, RICHARD DE LA (d. 1525)
• POLE, WILLIAM (1814—1900)

pole or a thin-edged See also:

• PADDLE

paddle will serve the turn . But a sword-handle without a blade is naught; and no true sword-blade can be made See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save of metal capable of taking an edge or point . r . See also:

• HISTORICAL

Historical.—There are so-called swords of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood and even See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone to be found in collections of See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage weapons . But these are really flattened clubs; and the See also:

• PRESENT

present writer origins and agrees with the See also:

• LATE

late General See also:

• PITT, THOMAS (1653-1726)
• PITT, WILLIAM (1759-1806)

Pitt-See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

Rivers in not See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early believing that such modifications of the See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

club have Forms. had any appreciable See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence on the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form or use of true swords . On this last point, however, the opinions of competent archaeologists have been much divided . We will only remark that the occurrence in See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of human handiwork of a form, or even a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of forms, intermediate between two types is not conclusive See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence that those forms are historical links between the different types, or that there is any historical connexion at all . In the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of See also:

• DATES

dates fixed by See also:

• EXTERNAL

external evidence this See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of comparison will seldom take us beyond plausible conjecture . A traveller who had never seen velocipedes might naturally suppose, on a first inspection, that the See also:

• TRICYCLE (from prefix tri, three, and Gr. 1cbaos, circle, wheel)

tricycle was a modification of the old four-wheeled velocipede, and the See also:

• BICYCLE (from prefix bi = twice, and Gr. KuKXOr, a circle, wheel)

bicycle a still later invention; but we know that in fact the See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of development was quite different .

It is more difficult as a See also:

• MATTER

matter of verbal See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition to distinguish the sword from smaller hand weapons . Thus an See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary sword is four or five times as See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long as an ordinary See also:

• DAGGER

dagger: but there are long daggers and See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short swords; neither will the form of blade or handle afford any certain test . The real difference lies in the intended use of the weapon; we See also:

• ASSOCIATE (Lat. associates, from ad, to, and sociare to join)

associate the sword with open combat, the dagger with a See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret attack or the sudden See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence opposed to it . One might say that a weapon too large to be concealed about the See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person cannot be called a dagger . Again, there are large knives, such as those used by the Afridis and Afghans, which can be distinguished from swords only by the greater breadth of the blade as compared with its length . Again, there are See also:

• SPECIAL

special types of arms, of which the See also:

• YATAGHAN (from Turk. yeitaghan; sometimes spelled in English " attaghan " and " ataghan ")

yataghan is a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good example, which in their usual forms do not look much like swords, but in others that occur must be classed as varieties of the sword, unless we keep them See also:

• SEPARATE

separate by a more or less artificial theory, referring the type as a whole to a different origin . Of the actual origin of swords we have no See also:

• DIRECT

direct evidence . Neither does the See also:

• ENGLISH

English word nor, so far as we are aware, any of the See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent words in other See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages, See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan or otherwise, throw any See also:

• LIGHT

light on the matter . Daggers shaped from See also:

• REINDEER

reindeer antlers occur among the earliest See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, and there are See also:

• FLINT
• FLINT, AUSTIN (1812-1886)
• FLINT, or FLTNTSHTRE (sir Gallestr)
• FLINT, ROBERT (1838- )
• FLINT, TIMOTHY (1780-1840)

flint daggers of the See also:

• NEOLITHIC, or LATER STONE AGE (Gr. vEOr, new, and XLOos, stone)

Neolithic See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, which may be supposed to have been the See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model for the first hand weapons made of See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper . See also:

• BRONZE

Bronze took the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of copper about 2000 B.C., and the transition from bronze to See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron is assigned to the period from 1000 to 700 B.e 1 Whatever may be the further discoveries of archaeologists, we know that swords are found from the earliest 1 As to the overlapping of the bronze and iron ages in the Homeric poems, see Burrows, The Discoveries in See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete (19o7), p . 214 . As co See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain, O .

Montelius in Archaeologia, 61, pp . 155–6; See also:

• COWPER, WILLIAM (1731-1800)
• COWPER, WILLIAM COWPER, 1ST EARL (c. 1665-1723)

Cowper, See also:

• ART

Art of Attack, 124 sqq . (See also:

• ULVERSTON

Ulverston, 1906) . times of which we have any See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record among all See also:

• PEOPLE

people who have acquired any skill in metal-See also:

• WORK

work . There are two very See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient types, which we may See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call the straight-edged and the See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf-shaped . See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian monuments represent a straight and narrow sword, better fitted for thrusting than cutting . Bronze swords of this form have been found in many parts of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, at See also:

• MYCENAE

Mycenae, See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side by side with leaf-shaped specimens, and more lately in Crete.' We have also from Mycenae some very curious and elaborately wrought See also:

• BLADES, WILLIAM (1824-1890)

blades, so broad and short that they must be called ornamental daggers rather tnan swords . The leaf-shaped blade is See also:

• COMMON

common everywhere among the remains of men in the " Bronze Period " of See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization, and this was the shape used by the Greeks in historical times, and is the shape See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar to us in See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek See also:

• WORKS

works of art . It is impossible, however, to say whether the Homeric heroes were conceived by the poet as wearing the leaf-shaped sword, as we see it, for example, on the See also:

• MAUSOLEUM

Mausoleum sculptures, or a narrow straight-edged blade of the Minoan and Mycenaean See also:

• PATTERN

pattern . In any See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case, the sword holds a quite inferior position with Greek warriors of all times . (1-5, from See also:

• GERHARD
• GERHARD, FRIEDRICH WILHELM EDUARD (1795-1867)

Gerhard's Griechische Vasenbilder; 6-r5, from Lindenschmit, Track' end Bemafnung See also:

• DES

des romischen Heeres wahrend der Kaiserzeii, See also:

• BRUNSWICK
• BRUNSWICK (Ger. Braunschweig)
• BRUNSWICK, KARL WILHELM FERDINAND, DUKE OF (1735-18o6)

Brunswick, 1882.) 1-5, Greek Swords of the classical type; 6-15 See also:

• ROMAN

Roman Swords . 6, So-called " sword of Tiberius" 9, Cavalrv(monumentat See also:

• MAINZ (Fr. Mayence)

Mainz). from Mainz (Brit .

See also:

• MUS

Mus.) . Io, See also:

• CAVALRY (Fr. cavalerie, Ger. Kavallerie or Reiterei, derived ultimately from late Lat. caballus, horse)

Cavalry (See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

monument at 7, See also:

• BONN

Bonn (private collection), See also:

• WORMS

Worms) . length 765 mm . 12, 13, Sword handles (See also:

• KIEL

Kiel and 8, Legionary (monument at Mainz) . See also:

• WIESBADEN

Wiesbaden) . II, 14, 15, From See also:

• TRAJAN [MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS] (A. D. 53-117)

Trajan's See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column . The relation of the Minoan long sword to the Greek leaf-shaped blade is obscure . It is conceivable that the leaf-shape was modified from a longer straight blade for the See also:

• SAKE

sake of handiness and cutting See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power, but not less so that the leaf-shape was 1 The Cretan finds are fully described by See also:

• ARTHUR (Fr. Arius)
• ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830 – 1886)

Arthur J . See also:

• EVANS, CHRISTMAS (1766-1838)
• EVANS, EVAN HERBER (1836-1896)
• EVANS, OLIVER (1755–1819)
• EVANS, SIR GEORGE DE LACY (1787–1870)
• EVANS, SIR JOHN (1823-1908)

Evans, " The Prehistoric Tombs of Knossos," (Archaeologia (1905), 59, pt . 2; also separately published (1906) . There are long (91-95 cm., 34.1 in:-37.1 in.) and short (50-61 cm., 20-24.2 in.), swords, daggers and bronze knives . A See also:

• FINE

fine See also:

• ORIGINAL

original specimen and several facsimiles (Mycenaean as well as Minoan) may he seen in the Ashmolean Museum at See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford .

Bronze daggers preceded both swords and See also:

• SPEAR (O. Eng. spere, O. H. Ger. sper, mod. Ger. speer, &c., cf. Lat. sparrs; probably related to " spar, " a beam)

spear-heads (Greenwell and Brewis, in Archaeologia, 61, pp . 443, 453).independently produced by See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation in metal of flint daggers . See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

Independence appears, on the whole, slightly more probable; the existence of specimens which might belong to an intermediate type is only an ambiguous fact without a more exact See also:

• CHRONOLOGY (Gr. xpovo?oyfa, computation of time, xp6vos)

chronology than we have as yet, as it may be due to experiment or imitation after both types were in use . See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

Strange as it is to a See also:

• MODERN

modern swordsman, representations in Minoan art seem to show that not only the bronze daggers but the long swords were used with an overhand stabbing See also:

• ACTION

action like a modern See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic dagger.2 The handles are too short for any but a rigid grip without See also:

• FINGER

finger-See also:

• PLAY

play . Before about 1500 B.C. the See also:

• RAPIER

rapier type was the prevailing one; but there is no evidence of historical connexion between the Assyrian and the Minoan rapiers . It is thought that the leaf-shaped blade came to the Mediterranean countries from the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north . So far as we know from works of art, it was mostly used with a downright cutting See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow, regardless of the consequent exposure of the swordsman's See also:

• BODY

body; this, however, matters little when defence is See also:

• LEFT

left to a See also:

• SHIELD (0. Eng. scild, cf. Du. and Ger. Schild, Dan. Skjold; the origin is doubtful, but may be referred to the root seen in " shell " or " scale "; another suggestion connects it with Icel. skjalla, to clash, rattle; it is not connected with the Indo-Ger
• SHIELD, WILLIAM (1748—1829)

shield or See also:

• ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH (1832-1901)

armour, or both . See also:

• ATTIC (i.e. "in the Attic style ")

Attic vases also show warriors giving point, though less often . The use of the sword as a weapon of combined offence and defence—swordsmanship as we now understand it—is quite modern . If the sword was See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed from a spearhead or dagger, it would naturally have been (and it seems in fact to have been) a thrusting weapon before it was a cutting one . But when we come to historical times we find that uncivilized people use only the edge, and that the effective use of the point is a See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark of advanced skill and See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior civilization . The See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans paid special See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to it, and See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus tells us how See also:

• AGRICOLA (originally SCHNEIDER, then SCHNITTER), JOHANNES (1494-1566)
• AGRICOLA (the Latinized form of the name BAUER), GEORG (1490-1555)
• AGRICOLA, CHRISTOPH LUDWIG (1667-1719)
• AGRICOLA, GNAEUS JULIUS (A.D. 37-93)
• AGRICOLA, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1720-1774)
• AGRICOLA, MARTIN (c. 1500-1556)
• AGRICOLA, RODOLPHUS (properly ROELOF HUYSMANN) (1443-1485)

Agricola's legionaries made short work of the clumsy and pointless arms of the Britons when See also:

• BATTLE

battle was fairly joined.3 The tradition was preserved at least as late as the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of See also:

• VEGETIUS (FLAvjUS VEGETIUS RENATUS)

Vegetius, who, as a technical writer, gives details of the Roman soldier's sword exercise .

Asiatics to this See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day treat the sword merely as a cutting weapon, and most Asiatic swords cannot be handled in any other way . The normal types of swords which we meet with in historical times, and from which all forms now in use among civilized nations are derived, may be broadly classified as stra.ightedged or curved . In the straight-edged type, in itself T See also:

• SPES

Spes . torical yes a very ancient one, either thrusting or cutting qualities may predominate, and the blade may be See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double-edged or single-edged . The double-edged form was prevalent in Europe down to the 17th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . The single-edged blade, or back-sword as it was called in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, is well exemplified among the Scottish weapons commonly but improperly known as claymores (the real See also:

• CLAYMORE (from the Gaelic claidheamh mar, " great sword ")

claymore, i.e. See also:

• GREAT

great sword, claidheamh mor, is an earlier See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval form), and is now all but exclusively employed for military weapons . But these, with few exceptions, have been more or less influenced by the curved See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental sabre . Among early double-edged swords the Roman pattern (gladius, the thrusting sword, contrasted with the See also:

• BARBARIAN (Gr. fap/3apos)

barbarian ensis) stands out as a workmanlike and formidable weapon for See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close fight . In the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages the Roman tradition disappeared, and a new start was made from the clumsy barbarian See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm which the Romans had despised . Gradually the broad and all but pointless blade was lightened and tapered, and the thrust, although its real power was unknown, was more or less practised from the 12th century onwards . St See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis anticipated See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon in calling on his men to use the point; and the heroes of dismounted combats in the See also:

• MARIE

Marie d'Arthur are described as " foining " at one another . In the first See also:

• HALF

half of the 16th century a well-proportioned and well-mounted cut-and-thrust sword was in general use, and great See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic ingenuity was expended, for those who could afford it, on the mounting and adornment .

The growth and See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations of the different parts of the hilt, curiously resembling those of a living See also:

• SPECIES

species, would alone be matter enough for an archaeological study . One See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar form, that of the Scottish See also:

• BASKET

basket-hilt, derived from the Venetian pattern known as See also:

• SCHIAVONE

schiavone, has persisted without material See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change . 2 As the spear still was in historical times (See also:

• FURTWANGLER, ADOLF (1853–1907)

Furtwangler-Reichhold, Gr . Vasenmalerei, iii . 122) . Agric . 36: " Britannorum gladii sine mucrone complexum armorum et in aperto pugnam non tolerabant." The short Roman See also:

• INFANTRY

infantry sword. however, dates only from the Second Punic See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War . 1ZOMAN Quite different from the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• MODELS

models is the See also:

• CRESCENT (Lat. crescens, growing)

crescent-shaped Asiatic sabre, commonly called See also:

• SCIMITAR

scimitar . We are not acquainted with any distinct evidence as to the origin of this in time or place . Dr R . Forrer thinks the whole See also:

• FAMILY

family of curved swords was developed from bronze knives . The Frankish scramasax would then represent an intermediate type .

How-ever that may be, the fame of the See also:

• DAMASCUS

Damascus manufacture of sword-blades is of great antiquity, as is also that of See also:

• KHORASAN, or KHORASSAN (i.e. " land of the sun ")

Khorasan, still the centre of the best Eastern work of this kind . Who-ever first made these blades had conceived a very definite See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea —that of gaining a maximum of cutting power regardless of loss in other qualities—and executed it in a manner not to be improved upon . The action of the curved edge in delivering a blow is to present an oblique and therefore highly acute-angled See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of the blade to the See also:

• OBJECT

object struck, so that in effect the cut is given with a finer edge than could safely be put on the blade in its direct transverse section . In a well-made sabre the setting of the blade with regard to the handle (" leading forward ") is likewise ordered with a view to this result . And the cutting power of a weapon so shaped and mounted is undoubtedly very great . But the use of the point is abandoned, (Reproduced by permission from See also:

• EGERTON, SIR PHILIP DE MALPAS GREY

Egerton's Illustrated Handbook of See also:

• INDIAN

Indian Arms, published by the See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

Office, 188o, new ed. s.l . Indian and Oriental Armour, ISO.) r, 2, Decorated See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian arms . 6, Persian talwar . 3, See also:

• GAUNTLET (a diminutive of the Fr. gant, glove)

Gauntlet sword.- 8, Kukri (See also:

• NEPAL, NEPAUL

Nepal) . 4, Common type of talwar (North- 7, 9, 10, Mahratta, showing tran-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West Provinces). sition to gauntlet sword . 5, Yataghan type . and the capacities of defensive use (to which Orientals pay little or no attention) much diminished .

These drawbacks have caused the scimitar type, after being in See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion for European 'light cavalry during the period of Napoleon's See also:

• WARS

wars and some-what longer, to be discarded in our own time . But, as long as Easterns adhere to their rigid grasp of a small handle and sweeping cut delivered from the See also:

• SHOULDER (in O.E. sculder, cognate with Ger. Schulter, Dutch schouder, Swed. skuldra, &c; the root is unknown)

shoulder, the Persian scimitar or Indian talwar will remain the natural weapon of the eastern horseman . Indian and Persian swords are often richly adorned; but their appropriate beauty is in the texture of the See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel itself, the " See also:

• DAMASCENING, or DAMASKEENING

damascening " or " watering " which distinguishes a superior from a common specimen . There are special Asiatic varieties of curved blades of which the origin is more or less uncertain . Among these the most remarkable is perhaps the yataghan, a weapon See also:

• PRETTY

pretty much coextensive with the See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan See also:

• WORLD

world, though it is reported to be not common in See also:

• PERSIA

Persia . It was imported from See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, through a See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French imitation, as the model of the sword-bayonets which were common for about a See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation in European armies; probably the French authorities caught at it to satisfy the sentiment, which lingered in See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental armies long after it had disappeared in England, that even the infantry soldier after the invention of the See also:

• BAYONET

bayonet must have some kind of sword . A compact and formidable hand weapon was thus turned into a clumsy and See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top-heavy pike . If we try to make a bayonet that will cut cabbages, we may or may not get a useful chopper, but we shall certainly get a very See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad bayonet . The modern short sword-bayonet is a reversion to the original dagger type, and not open to this objection . The double See also:

• CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve of the yataghan is substantially identical with that of the See also:

• GURKHA (pronounced goorka; from Sans. gau, a cow, and raks, to protect)

Gurkha See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

knife (kukri), though the latter is so much broader as to be more like a woodman's than a soldier's See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument . It is doubtful, however, whether there is any historical connexion . Similar needs are often capable of giving rise to similar inventions without imitation or communication .

There are yet other varieties, belonging to widely spread families of weapons, which have acquired a strong individuality . Such are the swords of See also:

• JAPAN

Japan, which are the highly perfected working out of a general Indo-See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese type; they are powerful weapons and often beautifully made, but a European swordsman would find them See also:

• ILL

ill-balanced, and the See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style of sword-play, being two-handed, has little to See also:

• TEACH [THATCH OR THACH], EDWARD (d. 1718)

teach us . Other sorts of weapons, again, are so peculiar in form or historical derivation, or both, as to refuse to be referred to any of the normal divisions . The long straight gauntlet-hilted sword (path, fig . 3) found both among the See also:

• MAHRATTAS

Mahrattas in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of India and among the Sikhs and Rajputs in the north, is an elongated form of the broad-bladed dagger with a See also:

• CROSS

cross-See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar handle (katdr, See also:

• FIGS

figs . 9, ro), as is shown by a transitional form, much resembling in shape and See also:

• SIZE

size of blade the medieval English anlace, and furnished with a guard for the back of the hand . This last-mentioned pattern seems, however, to be limited to a comparatively small region . When once the See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of a long blade with the gauntlet hilt was arrived at, any straight blade might be so mounted; and many appear on examination to be of European workmanship—See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German, See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish or See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian . There are various other Oriental arms, notably in the See also:

• MALAY

Malay See also:

• GROUP

group, as to which it is not easy to say whether they are properly swords or not . The Malay " parang latok " is a kind of elongated chopper sharpened by being bevelled off to an edge on one side, and thus capable of cutting only in one direction . The anlace incidentally mentioned above seems to be merely an overgrown dagger; the name occurs only in English and Welsh; in which See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language first, or whence the name or thing came, is unknown . In the course of the 16th century the straight two-edged sword of all work was lengthened, narrowed, and more finely pointed, till it became the Italian and Spanish Later I urorapier, a weapon still furnished with cutting edges, See also:

• DEAN (Lat. decanus, derived from the Gr. 8eaa, ten)
• DEAN, FOREST OF

Dean De-but used chiefly for thrusting .

We cannot say how veloprnenta. far this transition was influenced by the estoc or Panzerstecher,t a late medieval thrusting weapon carried by horsemen rather as an See also:

• AUXILIARY (from Lat. auxilium, help)

auxiliary lance than as a sword . The Roman preference of the point was rediscovered under new conditions, and See also:

• FENCING

fencing became an art . Its progress was from pedantic complication to lucidity and simplicity, and the fashion of the weapon was t Probably this was the kind of sword called Broch in 14th-century English (See also:

• EYRE, EDWARD JOHN (1815-1901)
• EYRE, SIR JAMES (1734-1799)

Eyre of See also:

• KENT
• KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• KENT, JAMES (1763-1847)
• KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748)

Kent, See also:

• SELDEN, JOHN (1584–1654)

Selden See also:

• SOC

Soc., 1910, p . 100) . simplified also . Early in the 18th century, the use of the edge having been finally abandoned in rapier-play, the two-edged blade was supplanted by the bayonet-shaped French duelling sword, on which no improvement has since been made except in giving it a still simpler guard . The name of rapier was often but wrongly given to this by English writers . About the same time, or a little earlier, the primacy of the art passed from See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy to See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France . There is still a distinct Italian school, but the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the world learns from French masters . It is unnecessary here to consider the See also:

• HISTORY

history of fencing (q.v.); Mr Egerton See also:

• CASTLE
• CASTLE (Lat. castellum, a fort, diminutive of castra, a camp; Fr. chateau and chdtel)

Castle's See also:

• BOOK

book on the subject will be found a trustworthy See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide, and almost indispensable for those who wish really to understand the passages See also:

• RELATING

relating to sword-play in our Elizabethan literature, of which the fencing See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene in See also:

• HAMLET

Hamlet is the most famous and obvious example . (Reproduced by permission from Mr Egerton Castle's See also:

• SCHOOLS

Schools and Masters of Fence.) German, c . 1550 .

17th century . Italian rapier, third See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter 9, Venetian, c . 1550 . 16th century . Io, Italian, late 16th century . Spanish rapier, late 16th 11, English, time of Common- century . - See also:

• WEALTH

wealth . Italian, same period . 12, French rapier, c . 165o . English, same period . 13, German flamberg, early 17th English musketeer's sword, century .

early 17th century . 15, Small-swords, 1700-1750 . Meanwhile a stouter and broader pattern, with sundry See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor varieties, continued in use for military purposes, and gradually the single-edged form or broadsword prevailed . The well-known name of See also:

• FERRARA

Ferrara, peculiarly associated with Scottish blades, appears to have originally belonged to a Venetian maker,or family of makers, towards the end of the 16th century . The Spanish blades made at See also:

• TOLEDO
• TOLEDO, COUNCILS OF (Concilia toletana)

Toledo had by that time acquired a renown which still continues . Somewhat later Oriental examples, imported probably by way of See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary, induced the curvature found in most See also:

• RECENT

recent military sabres, which, however, is now kept within such See also:

• BOUNDS, BEATING THE

bounds as not to interfere with the effective use of the point . An See also:

• ECCENTRIC (from Gr. F,c, out of, and Kivrpov, centre)

eccentric specialized variety—we may call it a " See also:

• SPORT (a contracted or shortened form of "disport," to amuse, divert oneself, O. Fr. se dis porter or deporter, to leave off work, hence to play, Lat. dis-, away, and portare, to carry; the origin of the meaning lies in the notion of turning away from ser

sport "— of the sabre is the narrow and flexible " Schlager " with which German students fight their duels (for the most See also:

• PART

part not arising out of any See also:

• QUARREL

quarrel, but set trials of skill), under highly conventional rules almost identical with those of the old English " backswording " practised within living memory, in which, however, the swords were represented by sticks . These " Schlager " duels cause much effusion of See also:

• BLOOD

blood, but not often serious danger to See also:

• LIFE

life or See also:

• LIMB

limb . There are plenty of modern books on sabre-play, but comparatively little attention has been given to its scientific treatment . It is said that the Italian school is better than the French, and the modern German and See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian the best of all . Some of the English cavalry regiments have good traditions, enriched by the application of a knowledge of fencing derived from eminent French masters . The following description, written for the 9th edition of this work from See also:

• PERSONAL

personal inspection, applies to the See also:

• PROCESS

process used by the best private makers till near the end of the 19th manufacture century, and is purposely left unchanged .

The of swords by present method of making See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army swords is separately Hand-work. described below . See also:

• MECHANICAL

Mechanical invention has not been able to supersede or equal hand-work in the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of good sword-blades . The swordsmith's See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

craft is still, no less than it was in the middle ages, essentially a handicraft, and it requires a high order of skill . His rough material is a bar of See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast and hammered steel tapering from the centre to the ends; when this is cut in two each half is made into a sword . The " tang" which fits into the handle is not part of the blade, but a piece of wrought iron welded on to its See also:

• BASE

base . From this first See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage to the See also:

• FINISHING

finishing of the point it is all See also:

• HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862)

hammer and See also:

• ANVIL (from Anglo-Saxon anfilt or onfilti, either that on which something is " welded " or " folded," cf. German falzen, to fold, or connected with other Teutonic forms of the word, cf. German amboss, in which case the final syllable is from " beat," and

anvil work . Special tools are used to form grooves in the blade according to the regulation or other pattern desired, but the shape and See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of the blade are fixed wholly by the skilled hand and See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye of the See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

smith . [See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

Machine See also:

• FORGING

forging in the early stages is now common, and there is no difficulty in making the blade and tang of the same metal.] Measuring tools are at hand, but are little used . Great care is necessary to avoid overheating the metal, which would produce a brittle crystalline See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain, and to keep the See also:

• SURFACE

surface See also:

• FREE

free from See also:

• OXIDE

oxide, which would be injurious if hammered in . In tempering the blade the workman See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges of the proper See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat by the See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour . See also:

• WATER

Water is preferred to oil by the best makers, notwithstanding that tempering in oil is much easier . With oil there is not the same See also:

• RISK

risk of the blade coming out distorted and having to be forged straight again (a risk, however, which the See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert swordsmith can generally avoid); but the steel is only surface-hardened, and the blade therefore remains liable to See also:

• BEND

bend .

[This is disputed.] Machinery comes into play only for grinding and polishing, and to some extent in the manufacture of hilts and See also:

• APPURTENANCES (from late Lat. appertinentia, from appertinere, to appertain)

appurtenances . The finished blade is proved by being caused to strike a violent blow on a solid See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block with the two sides See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat, with the edge, and lastly with the back; after this the blade is See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent flatwise in both directions by hand, and finally the point is driven through a steel See also:

• PLATE

plate about an eighth of an See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch thick . In spite of all the care that can be used both in choice of material and in workmanship, about 40% of the blades thus tried [now only about ro%] fail to stand the See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof, and are rejected . The process we have briefly described is that of making a really good sword; of course, plenty of cheaper and commoner weapons are in the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market, but they are hardly See also:

• FIT

fit to See also:

• TRUST

trust a man's life to . It is an interesting fact that the peculiar skill of the swordsmith is in England so far hereditary that it can be traced back in the same families for several generations . The best Eastern blades are justly celebrated, but they are not better than the best European ones; in fact, European swords are" often met with in Asiatic hands, remounted in Eastern fashion . The " damascening " or " watering " of choice Persian and Indian arms is not a secret of workmanship, but is due to the peculiar manner of making the Indian steel itself, in which a crystallizing process is set up; when metal of this texture is forged out, the result is a more or less See also:

• REGULAR

regular wavy pattern See also:

• RUNNING

running through it . There were early medieval damascened (in German called wurmbunte) blades . No difference is made by this in the See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical qualities of the blade . (F . Po.) 2 . Modern Military Swords.—The present military swords are descended from the straight " back-sword " and the Eastern scimitar or talwar .

The difference between the curved " sabre " and straight " sword " has been preserved abroad, not only in fact but in name (e.g. in German, Degen stands for the straight, and Sabel for the curved, sword), though in English the single word " sword " covers both varieties . The shape of the sword has varied considerably at different times; this is due to the fact 273 that it is practically impossible to decide by trial whether a straight or a curved sword is the better under all circumstances . The trooper can use his sword in three different ways—to cut, to guard and to point; and his success depends upon the training of his See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse, his skill in See also:

• HORSEMANSHIP

horsemanship, and, above all, upon the dexterity and methods of his adversary . Thus the effect the cavalryman can produce in combat depends upon much besides his arm or arms, and those other See also:

• CON

con- ditions cannot be reproduced accurately enough to make trustworthy tests . The result is that changes have often been made in cavalry armament under the erroneous impression that the arm used has been the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main cause of success . The See also:

• OTTOMAN

Ottoman cavalry up to the end of the 18th century was regarded as one of the best in Europe, and so much was it dreaded that the Austrians and Russians in their wars with See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey at that time often carried " chevaux-de-frise " to protect their infantry against these redoubtable horse-men . The curved European cavalry sabre so long in use may undoubtedly be traced to this cause, the superiority of the See also:

• TURKS

Turks being put down to their curved scimitars, though there can be no doubt that horsemanship and dash were really the dominating factors . The shape of the sword to be chosen depends obviously on the purpose for which it is mainly intended . If for cutting a curved blade, and for thrusting a straight and pointed one, will be adopted . The question naturally arises as to which is the better See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan to adopt, and it is improbable that a definite See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer can ever be given to it . The French, for instance, in 1822 adopted a curved blade for a short time for all their cavalry, and in 1882 again for a short time a straight blade, and in 1898 again a straight blade . In this much-debated matter the facts appear to be as follows: A determined thrust, especially when delivered by a horseman at full See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed, is difficult to See also:

• PARRY (from Fr. parer, to ward off)
• PARRY, SIR CHARLES HUBERT HASTINGS, BART
• PARRY, SIR WILLIAM EDWARD (179o–1855)

parry: if it gets See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home, it will probably kill the recipient outright or disable him for the rest of the See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign .

That this is the case is See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne out by the very large proportion of killed as compared with wounded in the See also:

• BRITISH

British cavalry when engaged with that of the French in the See also:

• PENINSULAR

Peninsular War, the French making much use of the point, and their heavy cavalry being armed with a long straight- sword . On the other hand, to deliver a bold thrust, while disregarding the uplifted sword of the adversary, and leaving one's own body and head open to an impend