SYRIAC  LITERATURE ? By Syriac is denoted the See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect of Aramaic which, during the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early centuries of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian era, prevailed in See also:

• MESOPOTAMIA (Mevoaora)

Mesopotamia and the adjoining regions . The See also:

• LITERARY

literary use of Syriac by Christians had its first centre in See also:

• EDESSA
• EDESSA (mod. , Vodena)

Edessa (Syr . Urhai, See also:

• MODERN

modern Urfa), where, in all See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability, the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief Syriac versions of the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible were made . The use of the same dialect appears in the earliest Christian literature connected ' The See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch of the See also:

• HISTORY

history of Syriac literature here presented is based on See also:

• WRIGHT, CARROLL DAVIDSON (1840-1909)
• WRIGHT, CHAUNCEY (1830-1875)
• WRIGHT, JOSEPH (1734-1797)
• WRIGHT, SILAS (1795-1847)
• WRIGHT, THOMAS (1809–1884)
• WRIGHT, THOMAS (1810—1877)
• WRIGHT, WILLIAM ALDIS (1836– )

Wright's See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article in the 9th edition of the Ency . Brit., which was afterwards published separately under the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of A See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

Short History of Syriac Literature (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1894) . with such Mesopotamian cities as See also:

• NISIBIS (Nasibina in the Assyrian inscriptions)

Nisibis, Amid, See also:

• MARDIN

Mardin, Taghrith and See also:

• SELEUCIA (Gr. EeXeimeta)

Seleucia-See also:

• CTESIPHON

Ctesiphon, as well as See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of the See also:

• EUPHRATES (Babylon. Purattu, Heb. Perath, Arab. Frdt or Furst, Old Pers. Ufratu, Gr. Eb4 parrls)

Euphrates at such centres as Mabbogh (See also:

• HIERAPOLIS

Hierapolis) and See also:

• ALEPPO (native Haleb)

Aleppo, northwards at Malatiah and Maiperkat and in the districts of See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake See also:

• VAN

Van and Lake See also:

• URMIA, LAKE OF (also spelt URUMIAH)

Urmia, and to the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east and See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-east of the See also:

• TIGRIS (Old Persian Tigrd, Diklat of the cuneiform inscriptions, Hiddekel of the Old Testament, Diglath of the Targum, Digla of the Arabs)

Tigris in many places which from the 5th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century onwards were centres of Nestorian See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity within the Sasanian See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire . In See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine and western See also:

• SYRIA

Syria, the See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home of pre-Christian Aramaic dialects, the See also:

• VERNACULAR (Lat. verna, dim. vernaculus, a slave horn in his master's house)

vernacular Semitic speech had under See also:

• ROMAN

Roman dominion been replaced by See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek for See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official and literary purposes . Apparently this See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of things lasted till after the See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest, for Barhebraeusl tells us that it was the See also:

• CALIPH, CALIF

caliph \Valid I . (A.D . 705–715) who, out of hatred to Christianity, replaced Greek by Arabic as the See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language of official documents at See also:

• DAMASCUS

Damascus . Probably (as See also:

• DUVAL, ALEXANDRE VINCENT
• DUVAL, CLAUDE (1643–1670)

Duval suggests) the use of Syriac in these regions went See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand in hand with the spread of the monophysite See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine, for the liturgies and formulas of the Jacobite See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church were composed in Syriac .

Similarly the spread of Nestorian doctrines throughout the western and south-western regions of the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian Empire was accompanied by the ecclesiastical use of a See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of Syriac which differed very slightly indeed from that employed farther west by the See also:

• JACOBITES (from Lat. Jacobus, James)

Jacobites . So far we have spoken only of the Christian use of Syriac . Of the See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

pagan Syriac literature which issued mainly from IJarran, a See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city about one See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day's See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey south of Edessa, not a single example appears to have survived . From Christian writers we learn that Barran continued to be a seat of pagan See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship and culture down to and even later than the Mahommedan era . A native of the city, Thabit See also:

• IBN

ibn I.urra, in a passage from a Syriac See also:

• WORK

work of his (now lost) quoted by Barhebraeus, 2 speaks of the paganism of Ilarran as distinguished by its steadfast resistance to Christian propaganda . " When many were subdued to See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error through persecution, our fathers through See also:

• GOD

God were See also:

• STEAD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1849– )

stead-fast and stood out manfully, and this blessed city has never been defiled by the error of See also:

• NAZARETH (mod. en-Ndsira)

Nazareth . " He goes on to attribute the See also:

• WORLD

world's See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science and See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization to pagan inventors; but it is not clear whether in this he is alluding specially to the culture of his own city . Anyhow, it is much to be regretted that no Syriac See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing from See also:

• HARRAN, HARAN

Harran has survived .3 Syriac literature continued in See also:

• LIFE

life from the 3rd to the 14th century A.D., but after the Arab conquest it became an increasingly artificial product, for Arabic gradually killed the vernacular use of Syriac . In the literature as it survives many different branches of writing are represented—homilies in See also:

• PROSE

prose and See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse, See also:

• HYMNS

hymns, exposition and commentary, See also:

• LITURGY (Low Lat. liturgia; Gr. X€Zros, public, and Epyov, work; )Aetrovpy6s, a public servant)

liturgy, apocryphal legends, See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical See also:

• ROMANCE

romance, hagiography and See also:

• MARTYROLOGY

martyrology, monastic history and See also:

• BIOGRAPHY (from the Gr. (3ios, life, and yp&4 , writing)

biography, See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general history, dogmatics, See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy and science, ecclesiastical See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, &c . But the whole is dominated by the theological and ecclesiastical See also:

• INTEREST

interest . All chief writers were bishops, inferior See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy or monks, and their readers belonged to the same classes . When we put aside one or two exceptionally See also:

• FINE

fine pieces, like the hymn of the soul in the apocryphal Acts of See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas, the highest degree of excellence in See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style is perhaps attained in staightforward historical narrative—such as the See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the Perso-Roman See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War at the beginning of the 6th century by the author who passes under the name of See also:

• JOSHUA, BOOK OF

Joshua the Stylite, or by romancers like him who wrote the romance of See also:

• JULIAN (FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS) (331-363)

Julian; by biographers like some of those who have written lives of See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

saints, martyrs and eminent divines; and by some early writers of homilies such as See also:

• PHILOXENUS
• PHILOXENUS (Syriac, Aksenaya)

Philoxenus (in prose) and See also:

• ISAAC (Hebrew for " he laughs," on explanatory references to the name, see ABRAHAM)

Isaac of See also:

• ANTIOCH

Antioch (in verse) .

Nearly all the best writers are characterized by a certain naive and See also:

• EARNEST (probably a corruption of the obsolete arles or erles, adapted from Lat. equivalent arrha, due to a confusion with the adjective " earnest," serious, O. Eng. eornust, cognate with Ger. ernst)

earnest piety which is attractive, and not infrequently display a force of moral indignation which arrests See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention . These 1 Citron. syr., ed . Bruns, p . 120, ed . Bedjan, p . 115; cited by Duval, Litt. syr.', p . 5 . s Chron. syr., ed . Bruns, p . 176, ed . Bedjan, p . 168 .

Thabit was the author of about 16 Syriac See also:

• WORKS

works, of which the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority survived in the 13th century, but all are now lost . Of his 15o Arabic See also:

• TREATISES

treatises a few at least survive; see Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur, i . 217 seq . 2 On this subject, see especially Chwolsen's Ssabier and Ssabismus.latter qualities are even more apparent in See also:

• POETRY

poetry than in prose . There are indeed but few specimens of Syriac verse which exhibit high poetic quality; except for a fairly copious and occasionally skilful use of simile and See also:

• METAPHOR

metaphor, there is little of soaring See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination in Syriac poets . On the other hand there is much effective See also:

• RHETORIC (Gr. psroperctj TEXvq, the art of the orator)

rhetoric, and much skilful See also:

• PLAY

play of language.' As was to be expected, the better qualities of style were more often shown during the early centuries when the language was still a living speech . After it had been supplanted by Arabic in the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary intercourse of life its literary use was more and more affected by Arabic words and constructions, and its freedom as a vehicle of thought was much impaired . Nevertheless, so See also:

• LATE

late as the 13th century it was still an effective See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument in the hands of the most many-sided of Syriac authors, the eminent Barhebraeus . For the general history of culture the work of Syriac writers as translators is, perhaps, as important as any of their See also:

• ORIGINAL

original contributions to literature . Beginning with the earliest versions of the Bible, which seem to date from the 2nd century A.D., the See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series comprises a great See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations from Greek originals—theological, philosophical, legendary, historical and scientific . In a See also:

• FAIR

fair number of cases the Syriac version has preserved to us the substance of a lost original See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text . Often, moreover, the Syriac See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation became in turn the See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent of a later Arabic version .

This was notably the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case with some of the Aristotelian writings, so that in this See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field, as in some others, the Syriac writers handed on the See also:

• TORCH (O. Fr. torche, from Med. Lat. tortia, derived from tortus, twisted, torquere, to twist)

torch of Greek thought to the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs, by whom it was in turn transmitted to See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . The early Syriac translations are in many cases so literal as to do violence to the See also:

• IDIOM (Gr. t&%wµa, something peculiar and personal; lbws, one's own, personal)

idiom of their own language; but this makes them all the more valuable when we have to depend on them for reconstructing the original texts . The later translators use greater freedom.5 It was not from Greek only that translations were made into Syriac . Of translations from See also:

• PAHLAVI, or PEHLEVI

Pahlavi we have such examples as the version of pseudo-See also:

• CALLISTHENES (c. 360–328 B.C.)

Callisthenes' History of See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander, made in the 7th century from a Pahlavi version of the Greek original—that of Kalilah and Dimnah executed in the 6th century by the periodeutes Bodh—and that of Sindbad, which See also:

• DATES

dates from the 8th century; and in the late See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of Syriac literature, books were translated from Arabic into Syriac as well as See also:

• VICE

vice versa . All our historical See also:

• SOURCES

sources support the view taken above that Edessa, the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of the See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom which the Greeks and See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans called Osrhoene, was the earliest seat of Christianity in Mesopotamia and the See also:

• CRADLE (of uncertain etymology, possibly connected with " crate " and " creel," i.e. basket; the derivation from a Celtic word, with a sense of rocking, is scouted by the New English Dictionary)

cradle of Syriac literature . But as to the date and circumstances of its evangelization we have little reliable See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information . The well-known See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend of the See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence of See also:

• ABGAR

Abgar Ukkama, See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of Edessa, with See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ and the See also:

• MISSION

mission of Addai to Edessa immediately after the See also:

• ASCENSION
• ASCENSION, FEAST OF THE

Ascension was accepted as true by the historian See also:

• EUSEBIUS
• EUSEBIUS (Gr. EuOi/3tos, from ebaegils, pious, cf. the Latin name Pius)
• EUSEBIUS [OF CAESAREA] (c. 260-c. 340)
• EUSEBIUS [OF EMESA] (d. c. "36o)

Eusebius (t340) on the faith of a Syriac document pre-served in the official archives of the city . An amplified form of the same See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story is furnished by the Doctrine of Addai, an original Syriac work which survives See also:

• COMPLETE

complete in a St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg MS. of the 6th century, and is also represented by fragments in other See also:

• MSS

MSS. of the 5th and 6th centuries . This work was probably written at Edessa about the end of the 4th century . It adds many new features to the shorter form of the story as given by Eusebius, among which is the noteworthy promise of Christ about the impregnability of the city—" Thy city shall be blessed and no enemy shall ever henceforth obtain dominion over it . " This is probably a later addition made to the legend at a See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time when such facts as the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of Edessa by Lusius Quietus in 116 and its second capture and the destruction of its kingdom by the Romans in 216 had faded from memory.6 ° On the mechanism of Syriac verse, see Duval's admirable See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section on la poesie syriaque (Litt. syr.', p . 10 sqq.) .

5 Cf . Duval, op. cit. p . 303 seq., 5 Cf . Tixeront, Origines de l'Eglise d'Edesse, p . 93, and Duval, op. cit. p . 99 . The above view is more probable than that taken by F . C . Burkitt (Early Eastern Christianity, p . 14), that Eusebius knew of Christ's promise as See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter to Abgar, and purposely suppressed it as inconsistent with historical facts . But whether in its longer or its shorter form, the whole narrative must be pronounced unhistorical . In all probability the first king of Osrhoene to adopt Christianity was Abgar IX., son of Ma'nu, who reigned from A.D .

179 to 214 or 216, and the legend has confounded him with an earlier Abgar, also son of Ma'nu, who reigned first from B.C . 4 to A.D . 7 and again from A.D . 13 to 50.1 A contemporary of Abgar IX. at Edessa was the famous Bardaigan, himself a convert from heathenism, who was of See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth and a habitue of the Edessene See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court . It was no doubt partly under his See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence—also possibly in part through impressions received by Abgar during his visit to See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome about A.D . 202—that the king's See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place . But Christianity must have reached Edessa some See also:

• THIRTY

thirty to fifty years earlier . Our See also:

• OLDEST

oldest native historical document in Syriac —the account of a severe See also:

• FLOOD (in O. Eng. flod, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Flut, Dutch vloed, from the same root as is seen in " flow," " float ")
• FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791)

flood which visited Edessa in Nov . A.D . 2o12—mentions " the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple of the church of the Christians " as overthrown by the flood . The form of this See also:

• NOTICE

notice shows, as von See also:

• GUTSCHMID, ALFRED, BARON VON (1835-1887)

Gutschmid and others have remarked, that Christianity was not yet the See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion of the state; but it must for some time have had a home in Edessa . The same thing is seen from the fact that the See also:

• HERESY

heresy of the Marcionites was already showing itself in this See also:

• DISTRICT

district, for (in Tixeront's words) " heresies, in the first centuries at least, only spread in already constituted Christian communities." And by a skilful piecing together of the date furnished by the oldest Syriac versions of the Bible—such as the derivation of the Old Testament version from the See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews, and the almost exclusive use of See also:

• TATIAN (2nd cent. A.D.)

Tatian's Diatessaron as the See also:

• GOSPEL (O. Eng. godspel, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. bona annuntiatio, or evangelium, Gr. evayyeXwv; cf. Goth. iu spillon, " to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek, from iu, that which is good, and spellon to announce)

gospel of the Syriac Church down to the beginning of the 5th century—F .

C . Burkitt has shown it to be probable that the See also:

• PREACHING (Fr. preecher, from Lat. praedicare, to proclaim)

preaching of Christianity at Edessa reaches back to the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 2nd century or even to about the See also:

• YEAR

year 135.3 The Syriac versions of the Bible are treated elsewhere (see BIBLE) and may here be dismissed with a brief See also:

• SUMMARY

summary of facts and opinions . The received Syriac Bible or See also:

• VULGATE (from Lat. vulgus, the common people)

Vulgate (called the Peshitta or " See also:

• SIMPLE

simple " version from the 9th century onwards') contains all the canonical books of the Old Testament.' In the New Testament, 2 See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter, 2 and 3 See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John, See also:

• JUDE, THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF

Jude and the See also:

• APOCALYPSE
• APOCALYPSE (Gr. aaoKaXvti/hr, disclosure)
• APOCALYPSE, KNIGHTS OF THE

Apocalypse were originally See also:

• LEFT

left out, but Syriac versions were made at a later time . The Peshitta version of the Old Testament must have been originally made mainly by Jews, of whom we know there were colonies in Mesopotamia in the 2nd century . The translation was executed entirely from the See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew, but underwent later revision which brought it more into conformity with the LXX—this to a greater degree in some books than in others . The Peshitta New Testament—according to the convincing theory which at See also:

• PRESENT

present holds the See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields—is not the oldest form of the Syriac version, at least as regards the Gospels . From the beginning of the 3rd to the beginning of the 5th century Tatian's See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

Harmony or Diatessaron —whether originally compiled in Syriac, or compiled in Greek and translated into Syriac—was the current form of gospel in the Syriac Church . The text of the Gospels underlying it " represents the Greek text as read in Rome about A.D . 170." Slightly later was made the Old Syriac version of the See also:

• SEPARATE

separate Gospels, which survives in two MSS.—the Curetonian and the Sinaitic—in two differing forms: but this never obtained much currency . Its text " represents, where it differs from the Diatessaron, the Greek text as read in Antioch about A.D . 200." Then at the beginning of the 5th century, by the efforts of the 1 See especially See also:

• LIPSIUS, JUSTUS (1547-16o6)
• LIPSIUS, RICHARD ADELBERT (183o-1892)

Lipsius, See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die edessenische Abgar-See also:

• SAGE, RUSSELL (1816-1906)

Sage (188o), and the brilliant See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of the. legend by A. von Gutschmid in Mem. de l'acad. imper. See also:

• DES

des sciences de St Petersbourg, tome See also:

• XXXV

xxxv . No .

1 . The above dates for the See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings' reigns are taken from von Gutschmid . 2 Incorporated in the See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

Chronicle of Edessa (Hallier's edition, P . 145 sqq.) . 3 Early Eastern Christianity, Lecture II . See the explanation in Burkitt, op. cit. p . 41 seq . The MSS. which contain the Syriac Massorah or tradition of the See also:

• READING

reading of the text pass over See also:

• CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

Chronicles, See also:

• EZRA (from a Hebrew word meaning " help ")
• EZRA, FOURTH BOOK (or APOCALYPSE) OF
• EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF [I Esdras]

Ezra and See also:

• NEHEMIAH (Heb. for " Yah[weh] comforts ")

Nehemiah, and in the case of the See also:

• NESTORIANS

Nestorians also See also:

• ESTHER

Esther . But all these books are quoted by See also:

• APHRAATES (a Greek form of the Persian name Aphraha>: or Pharhadh)

Aphraates . s That of F . C . Burkitt .

See especially his S . See also:

• EPHRAIM

Ephraim's Quotations from the Gospel (See also:

• CAMBRIDGE
• CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802)

Cambridge, 1901); Evangelion da-mepharreshe (Cambridge, 1904), and the above cited Lecture.masterful See also:

• RABBULA

Rabbula, who was See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of Edessa from 411-412 to 435, a new version or recension of the Gospels was made and incorporated in the Peshitta or Vulgate, the use of the Diatessaron being henceforth proscribed . Rabbula's text of the Gospels " represents the Greek text as read in Antioch about A.D . 400." The history of the Peshitta rendering of the Acts and Epistles is less clear; apparently the earliest Syrian writers used a text somewhat different from that which afterwards became the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard' Of the large number of Apocryphal books existing in Syriac' the majority have been translated from Greek, one Or two (such as See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

Bar Sira or See also:

• ECCLESIASTICUS (abbreviated to Ecclus.)

Ecclesiasticus) from Hebrew, while some (like the Doctrine of Addai above referred to) are original Syriac documents . See also:

• SPECIAL

Special mention may be made here of the See also:

• TALE (O.Eng. talu, number, account, story; the word is common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Zahl, number, Erzahlung, narrative, Du. taal, speech, language)

tale of Ahikar—the See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise and virtuous secretary of See also:

• SENNACHERIB (Ass. Sin-akhi-erba, " the Moon-god has increased the brethren ")

Sennacherib, king of See also:

• ASSYRIA

Assyria—and of his wicked See also:

• NEPHEW

nephew Nadhan . This is the Syriac version of a narrative which has had an extraordinary See also:

• VOGUE, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848- )

vogue in the world's literature . It is now known to have existed in Aramaic as far back as the 5th century B.C., appearing on Jewish papyri which were lately discovered by the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German mission to Elephantine.' It appears to be traceable in its Greek See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress in writings of the philosopher See also:

• DEMOCRITUS

Democritus and the dramatist See also:

• MENANDER
• MENANDER (342–291 B.C.)
• MENANDER (MILINDA)

Menander; it was certainly known to the author of See also:

• TOBIT, THE BOOK OF

Tobit and perhaps to the author of See also:

• DANIEL
• DANIEL (DANIL)
• DANIEL, BOOK
• DANIEL, GABRIEL (1649-1728)

Daniel; some would trace its influence in the New Testament, in the See also:

• PARABLE (Gr. 7apa(3oXi7, a comparison or similitude)

parable of the wicked servant and elsewhere; it was known to See also:

• MAHOMET (strictly MUHAMMAD, commonly also MOHAMMED)

Mahomet and is referred to in the See also:

• KORAN

Koran; it has been included among the tales in the Arabian Nights; and it survives in a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good many versions See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient and modern . The old Syriac version, which is to be found in a number of MSS., was probably made from an early Aramaic version, if not from the original itself (which must surely have been Semitic) . The Syriac has in turn become the parent of the Arabic, Armenian and Ethiopic—possibly also of the Greek and See also:

• SLAVONIC, OLD

Slavonic versions.1' Another deeply interesting Syriac Apocryphon is the Acts of Judas Thomas (i.e . Judas the Twin), which is included in the collection of Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles . The Acts of Thomas is now generally recognized to be an original Syriac work (or " novel," as Burkitt calls it), although a Greek version also exists . It seems to have arisen in Gnostic circles, and its tendency is wholly in favour of See also:

• ASCETICISM

asceticism and See also:

• CELIBACY (Lat. caelibatus, from caelebs, unmarried)

celibacy .

Among its peculiarities is the fact that Judas Thomas is regarded as the twin See also:

• BROTHER

brother of Christ . The author has incorporated in it the finest poem to be found in all Syriac literature, the famous Hymn of the Soul . This depicts the journey of the soul from See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven to See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth, its life in the See also:

• BODY

body, and its final return to the heavenly home, under the figure of a See also:

• PARTHIAN

Parthian See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince who is sent from the court of his parents to the See also:

• LAND

land of See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt to fetch the See also:

• SERPENT (Lat. serpens, creeping, from serpere; cf. "reptile " from repere, Gr.4 ml-eta)

serpent-guarded See also:

• PEARL
• PEARL, THE

pearl; after a time of See also:

• SLOTH

sloth and forgetfulness he fulfils his quest, and returns triumphant and again puts on the heavenly robe . According to Burkitt, the hymn must have been composed before the fall of the Arsacids and the commencement of the Sasanian Empire in 224 . It is plainly Gnostic and may perhaps have been composed by Bardaisan or his son Harmonius.0 Among See also:

• RECENT

recent See also:

• EDITIONS

editions of Apocrypha in Syriac may be mentioned those of the Apocalypse of See also:

• BARUCH

Baruch, the See also:

• EPISTLE

Epistle of Baruch, 7 For the later Monophysite versions, none of which attained much popularity, see Wright's Syr . Lit. pp . 13-17, and for the single Nestorian See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt at revision, ibid. p . 19 . s See the lists in Wright, op. cit. pp . 5 seq . 25-27, and Duval, Litt . Syr.' ch. viii .

See F . Nau, Histoire et sagesse d'Ahikar l'Assyrien (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris . 1909), p . 288 sqq . 10 See especially The Story of Ahikar from the Syriac, Arabic, Armenian, Ethiopic, Greek and Slavonic Versions, by F . C . See also:

• CONYBEARE, WILLIAM DANIEL (1787–1857)
• CONYBEARE, WILLIAM JOHN (1815–1857)

Conybeare, J . R . See also:

• HARRIS, GEORGE, 1ST BARON (1746–1829)
• HARRIS, JAMES (1709-1780)
• HARRIS, JOEL CHANDLER (1848-1908)
• HARRIS, JOHN (c. 1666-1719)
• HARRIS, SIR WILLIAM SNOW
• HARRIS, THOMAS LAKE (1823-1906)
• HARRIS, WILLIAM TORREY (1835-1909)

Harris and A . S . See also:

• LEWIS, HENRY CARVILL
• LEWIS, JOHN FREDERICK (180 1876)
• LEWIS, MATTHEW GREGORY (1775-1818)
• LEWIS, MERIWETHER (1774-1809)
• LEWIS, SIR GEORGE CORNEWALL, BART

Lewis (Cambridge, 1898); and Nau, op. cit . The latter has a very full bibliography .

11 Of the Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles there is the well-known edition and translation by Wright (London, 1871) ; the Acts of Judas were re-edited by Bedjan in the 3rd See also:

• VOLUME

volume of Acta martyrum et sanctorum (Paris, 1892); of the Hymn of the Soul there is a fresh edition and translation by A . A . Bevan (Cambridge, 1897) . See also Lecture VI. in Burkitt's Early Eastern Christianity . and the Testament of See also:

• ADAM
• ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288)
• ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741–1809)
• ADAM, JULIETTE (1836– )
• ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759)
• ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622)
• ADAM, PAUL (1862– )
• ADAM, ROBERT (1728—1792)
• ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781-1853)
• ADAM, WILLIAM (1751-1839)

Adam by M . Kmosko (Graffin's Patrologia Syriaca, vol. ii.) . Lives of saints and martyrs form a large See also:

• GROUP

group among Syriac books . Among such documents connected with the early history of Edessa we have, besides the Doctrine of Addai, certain martyrdoms, those of Sharbel and Barsamya assigned to the reign of See also:

• TRAJAN [MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS] (A. D. 53-117)

Trajan, and those of Gurya and Sham6na and of the See also:

• DEACON (Gr. S&& ovos, minister, servant)

Deacon Habbibh under See also:

• DIOCLETIAN (GAIUs AURELIUS VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS) (A.D. 245–313)
• DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF (De Pretiis rerum venalium)

Diocletian and See also:

• LICINIUS

Licinius . All these documents, like Addai, belong probably to the 2nd See also:

• HALF

half of the 4th century, and are quite unreliable in detail for the historian,' though they may throw some See also:

• LIGHT

light on the conditions of life at Edessa under Roman See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government . There are also accounts of martyrdoms at See also:

• SAMOSATA (Eau6vara, -arum, Ptol. v. 15 § r 1 ; Strabo xvi. 749)

Samosata (See also:

• ASSEMANI

Assemani, Acta Mart. ii . 123–147), including that of St Azazail recently published by Macler (Paris, 1902) . But the great bulk of the Syriac martyrdoms have their See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene farther east, within the Persian dominions .

The life and writings of Bardaisan, " the last of the gnostics," and in some sense the See also:

• FATHER

father of Syriac literature and especially of Syriac poetry, have been treated in a separate article . The See also:

• BOOK

Book of the See also:

• LAWS

Laws of the Countries, which embodies his teaching, was re-edited in 1907 by F . Nau (this also in the 2nd volume of Graffin's Patrologia) . An early Syriac document, probably of the 2nd or 3rd century, is the Letter of Mdrd son of See also:

• SERAPION, or SARAPION

Serapion, which was edited by See also:

• CURETON, WILLIAM (1808-1864)

Cureton in his Spicilegium Syriacum . It is almost the only exception to the See also:

• RULE

rule that all surviving Syriac literature is Christian . The author is in sympathy with Christianity, but is himself an adherent of the stoic philosophy . His home appears to have been at Samosata.2 By the beginning of the 4th century much progress had been made with the organization of the Christian church not only within the Roman district of Mesopotamia, but also to the east and south-east within the Sasanian Empire, See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round such centres as Seleucia-Ctesiphon on the Tigris (near Baghdad), Karla de-Beth Selokh (modern See also:

• KERKUK, or QERQ13Q

Kerkuk) and Beth Lapat or Gundeshabher (in the modern See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Luristan) 3 The See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of Christianity by See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine as the official religion of the Roman Empire had an unfortunate effect on the position of the Christians in See also:

• PERSIA

Persia . They were naturally suspected of sympathizing with the Roman enemies rather than with their own Persian rulers . Accordingly when Sapor II . (310—379) declared war on Rome about 337, there ensued almost immediately a somewhat violent persecution of the Persian Christians, which continued in varying degrees for about 40 years . One result of this and later persecutions of the same See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind has been to enrich Syriac literature with a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long series of Acts of Persian Martyrs, which, although in their existing form intermixed with much legendary See also:

• MATTER

matter, nevertheless throw valuable light on the history and See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography of western Persia under Sasanian rule.' One of the earlier martyrs was See also:

• SIMEON
• SIMEON (or SYMEON) OF DURHAM (d. after 1129)
• SIMEON, JOSEPH JEROME, COMTE (1749–1842)

Simeon bar Sabba'e, bishop (? catholicus) of Seleucia from about 326 to 341 in See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession to Papa, who in the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of opposition from other bishops had organized the church of Persia under the primacy of Seleucia . The Martyrdom of Simeon exists in two recensions which have been separately edited by M .

Kmosko.s Another early See also:

• MARTYR (Gr. pimp or µaprvs)

martyr was Milles, bishop of See also:

• SUSA (anc. Segusio, q.v.)
• SUSA (Biblical, Shushan)
• SUSA (Fr. Sousse)

Susa, who had distinguished himself in the opposition to Papas Burkitt (op. cit. p . 21 seq.) endeavours to claim a higher value for the narratives about Gurya, Shamona and Habbibh, on the ground that these have left more trace in the later literature; but it is to he feared that all five martyrdoms are turned out in the same legendary See also:

• MOULD

mould . 2 Cf . Duval, Litt, Syr.' p . 241 seq . 3 On the origin and early history of Persian Christianity see especially J . Labourt, Le Christianisme clans ''empire Perse (Paris, 1904), chaps. i. and ii . - 8 See many of the texts in Bedjan's Acta martyrum et sanctorum (Paris, 1890–1896) . The valuable See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical results are exhibited in G . See also:

• HOFFMANN, AUGUST HEINRICH (1798–1874)
• HOFFMANN, ERNST THEODOR WILHELM (1776-1822)
• HOFFMANN, JOHANN JOSEPH (1805-1878)

Hoffmann's Ausziige aus syrischen Akten persischer dfartyrer (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1880) . 8 Graffin's Patrologia, ii . 661-1o45 .

Of the epistles, hymns, &c., attributed to Simeon nothing appears to survive but one or two hymns (ibid . 1048-1055) . The Martyrdom had been previously edited by Assemani and by Bedjan . 8 His history is in Assemani, Acta mart. i . 66 sqq., and Bedjan, ii . 26o sqq . The two most important 4th-century writers—Aphraates and Ephraim—are dealt with in separate articles . The importance of the former lies in the simple See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast of his religious thought, his See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence of theological formulas, his See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant adherence to the letter of Scripture, his See also:

• QUAINT (O. Fr. cointe, from Lat. cognitus, known, probably influenced by association with Lat. corn plus, neat)

quaint exegesis, and the light he throws on the circumstances of his time, especially (1) the feeling between Jews and Christians, and (2) the position and sympathies of the Christian subjects of Sapor II . The position and See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of Ephraim are very different . He is the typical exponent in Syriac of unbending See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic orthodoxy . He impressed his countrymen more than any other single writer, partly no doubt by his enormous fecundity in writing, but more by the stern piety and uncompromising dogmatism which pervade his works . In the 2nd half of the 4th century lived the See also:

• MONK (O.Eng. munuc; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g. Du. monnik, Ger. Witch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital. monacho and Span. monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adaptedfrom Gr. µovaXos, one living alone, a solitary; Own, alone)
• MONK (or MONCK), GEORGE
• MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856)
• MONK, MARIA (c. 1817—1850)

monk See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory, who wrote a See also:

• TREATISE

treatise on the monastic life .

He spent part of his life in See also:

• CYPRUS
• CYPRUS, CHURCH OF

Cyprus, and was a friend of See also:

• EPIPHANIUS, SAINT (c. 315-402)

Epiphanius, bishop of See also:

• SALAMIS

Salamis . To the information given by Assemani (B.O. i . 17o seq.) we can now add the statements of Ishe'-denal}' that he was a Persian by birth, and after being a See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant was led by a series of visions to take monastic vows . After a training at Edessa, he lived for a long time at Mt Izla in Mesopotamia, whence he proceeded to Cyprus, but returned to Mt Izla shortly before his See also:

• DEATH

death . His book on the monastic life mentioned by `Abadish6' is not known to survive; but some discourses and a letter of his are still extant . Before leaving the 4th century we may mention two other writers who probably both lived on into the 5th—Ba1ai and Cyrill6na . The former was the author of a good many poems;' the longest—which is however by some attributed to Ephraim8—is the work in 12 books on the history of See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph, of which a complete edition was published by Bedjan in 19o1 . Other poems of his were edited by See also:

• OVERBECK, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1789-1869)

Overbeck in S . Ephraemi Syri, &c., See also:

• OPERA (Italian for " work ")

opera selecta, pp . 251–336; and these have since been supplemented by Zettersteen's edition of a large number of his religious poems or metrical prayers (Beitrdge zur Kenntniss der religiosen Dichtung Balais, Leipzig, 1902) . His favourite See also:

• METRE ((terpuc?, sc. rFxvf, from Gr. Or poi', measure)

metre was the pentasyllabic . Cyrillona composed a poem on the invasion of the See also:

• HUNS

Huns in 395,9 and is by some regarded as identical with Ephraim's nephew Abhsamya, who in 403–404 " composed hymns and discourses on the invasion of the Roman empire by the Huns." The 5th century was a time of See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

storm and conflict in the churches of Mesopotamia and Persia, as in other parts of the Christian world .

The teaching of Apollinarius that in Christ the Divine Word took the place of the human rational soul, thus seeming to do away with his See also:

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