SYSTEMS OF  See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

CLASSIFICATION Morphography includes the systematic exploration and tabulation of the facts involved in the recognition of all the See also:

• RECENT

recent and See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct kinds of animals and their See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution in space and See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . (I) The museum-makers of old days and their See also:

• MODERN

modern representatives the curators and describers of zoo-logical collections, (2) See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early explorers and modern naturalist-travellers and writers on zoo-See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography, and (3) collectors of fossils and palaeontologists are the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief varieties of zoological workers coming under this See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head . Gradually since the time of See also:

• HUNTER, JOHN (1728-1793)
• HUNTER, ROBERT MERCER TALIAFERRO (r8o9-1887)
• HUNTER, SIR WILLIAM WILSON (1840-19oo)
• HUNTER, WILLIAM (1718–1783)
• HUNTER, WILLIAM ALEXANDER (1844-1898)

Hunter and See also:

• CUVIER, GEORGES LEOPOLD CHRETIEN FREDERIC DAGOBERT, BARON (1769-1832)

Cuvier anatomical study has associated itself with the more superficial morphography until to-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day no one considers a study of See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of any value which does not include See also:

• INTERNAL

internal structure, See also:

• HISTOLOGY
• HISTOLOGY (Gr. Ler6c, web, tissue, properly the web-beam of the loom, from iQravai, to make to stand)

histology and See also:

• EMBRYOLOGY

embryology in its See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope . The real See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn of See also:

• ZOOLOGY (from Gr. Nov, a living thing, and ?byos, theory)

zoology after the legendary See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages is connected with the name of an Englishman, See also:

• EDWARD

Edward Edward See also:

• WOTTON, NICHOLAS (c. 1497–1567)
• WOTTON, SIR HENRY (1568–1639)
• WOTTON, WILLIAM (1666-1727)

Wotton, See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born at See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford in 1492, who practised wotton. as a physician in See also:

• LONDON

London and died in 1555 . He published a See also:

• TREATISE

treatise De differentiis animalium at See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris in 1552 . In many respects Wotton was simply an exponent of See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle, whose teaching,. with various fanciful additions, constituted the real basis of zoological knowledge throughout the middle ages . It was Wotton's merit that he rejected the legendary and fantastic accretions, and returned to Aristotle and the observation of nature . The most ready means of noting the progress of zoology during the 16th; 17th and 18th centuries is to compare the Aristotle's classificatory conceptions of successive naturalists classif- with those which are to be found in the See also:

• WORKS

works of See also:

• CANON

canon . Aristotle himself . Aristotle did not definitely and in See also:

• TABULAR

tabular form propound a classification of animals, but from a study of his See also:

• TREATISES

treatises Historia animalium, De generatione animalium, and De partibus animalium the following classification can be arrived at : A . "Evauµa, See also:

• BLOOD

blood-holding animals (= Vertebrate) . I .

Zworo'.ouvra iv airrois, viviparous Enaema (=Mammals, including the See also:

• WHALE

Whale) . 2 . "Ops Oss (=Birds) . 3 . TtrpalroIa aaoba horosouvra, four-footed or legless Enaema which See also:

• LAY

lay eggs (=See also:

• REPTILES (Lat. Reptilia, creeping things, from reptilis; ref ere, to creep; Gr. Ep7rety, whence the term " herpetology," for the science dealing with them)

Reptiles and See also:

• AMPHIBIA

Amphibia) . 4 'IrKsc (=Fishes) . X ZVIIi . 35B . "See also:

• AVALON (also written AVALLON, AVOLLON, AVILION and AVELION)

Avalon, bloodless animals ( = Invertebrata) . 1 . Ma?obaa, soft-bodied Anaema (=See also:

• CEPHALOPODA

Cephalopoda) . 2 .

MaXaKOOrpwca, soft-shelled Anaema (=See also:

• CRUSTACEA

Crustacea) . 3 . "Eprsµa, insected Anaema or See also:

• INSECTS

Insects (=See also:

• ARTHROPODA

Arthropoda, exclusive of Crustacea) . 4 . 'OorpaeoIEpoara, See also:

• SHELL
• SHELL (O. Eng. scell, scyll, cf. Du. sceel, shell, Goth. skalja, tile; the word means originally a thin flake,. cf. Swed. skalja, to peel off; it is allied to " scale " and " skill," from a root meaning to cleave, divide, separate)

shell-bearing Anaema (=Echini, See also:

• GASTROPODA

Gastropoda and Lamellibranchiu) . Wotton follows Aristotle' in the See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of animals into the Enaema and the Anaema, and in fact in the recognition of all the See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups above given, adding only one large See also:

• GROUP

group wotton's to those recognized by Aristotle under the Anaema, modittcanamely, the group of Zoophyte, in which Wotton !tons . includes the Holothuriae, See also:

• STAR

Star-Fishes, Medusae, See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea-Anemones and See also:

• SPONGES

Sponges . Wotton divides the viviparous quadrupeds into the many-toed, See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double-hoofed and single-hoofed . By the introduction of a method of classification which was due to the superficial See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny—depending, not on structure, but on the See also:

• MEDIUM

medium inhabited by an animal, whether See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth, See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air or See also:

• WATER

water—Wotton is led to See also:

• ASSOCIATE (Lat. associates, from ad, to, and sociare to join)

associate Fishes and Whales as aquatic animals . But this is only a momentary See also:

• LAPSE (Lat. lapses, a slip or departure)

lapse, for he broadly distinguishes the two kinds . The Swiss See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor, Konrad See also:

• GESNER
• GESNER, ABRAHAM (1797-1864)
• GESNER, JOHANN MATTHIAS (1691—1761)

Gesner (1516-1565), is the most voluminous and instructive of these earliest writers on systematic zoology, and was so highly esteemed that his Historia animalium was republished a See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred years after his See also:

• DEATH

death . His See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• WORK

work appeared in successive parts—e.g .

Vivipara, ovipara, ayes, See also:

• PISCES (the fishes)

Pisces, serpentes et See also:

• SCORPIO ("THE SCORPION")

scorpio —and contains descriptions and illustrations of a large number of animal forms with reference to the lands inhabited by them . Gesner's work, like that of See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• JOHNSTONE

Johnstone (b . 1603), who was of Scottish descent and studied at St See also:

• ANDREWS, JAMES PETTIT (c. 1737–1797)
• ANDREWS, THOMAS (1813–1885)

Andrews, and like that of Ulysses See also:

• ALDROVANDI, ULISSI (1522-1605)

Aldrovandi of See also:

• BOLOGNA
• BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524–1608)

Bologna (b . 1522), was essentially a compilation, more or less See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical, of all such records, pictures and relations concerning beasts, birds, reptiles, fishes and monsters as could be gathered together by one See also:

• READING

reading in the great See also:

• LIBRARIES

Libraries of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, travelling from See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city to city, and frequenting the See also:

• COMPANY

company of those who either had themselves passed into distant lands or possessed the letters written and sometimes the specimens brought See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home by adventurous persons . The exploration of parts of the New See also:

• WORLD

World next brought to See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand descriptions and specimens of many novel forms of animal See also:

• LIFE

life, and in the latter See also:

• PART

part of the 16th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century and the Medical beginning of the r 7th that careful study by " See also:

• SPECIAL

special- anatomists " of the structure and life-See also:

• HISTORY

history of particular See also:

• ISIS (Egyptian Ese)

Isis and groups of animals was commenced, which, directed at at first to See also:

• COMMON

common and See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar kinds, was gradually extended until it formed a sufficient See also:

• BODY

body of knowledge to serve as an anatomical basis for classification . This minuter study had two origins, one in the researches of the medical anatomists, such as See also:

• FABRICIUS, GAIUS LUSCINUS (i.e. " the one-eyed ")
• FABRICIUS, GEORG (1516-1571)
• FABRICIUS, HIERONYMUS
• FABRICIUS, JOHANN ALBERT (1668-1736)
• FABRICIUS, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1745-18o8)

Fabricius (1537-1619), See also:

• SEVERINUS

Severinus (1580-1656), See also:

• HARVEY
• HARVEY, GABRIEL (c. 1545-1630)
• HARVEY, SIR GEORGE (1806-1876)
• HARVEY, WILLIAM (1578—1657)

Harvey (1578-1657), and Tyson (1649-1708), the other in the careful work of the entomologists and first microscopists, such as See also:

• MALPIGHI, MARCELLO (1628-1694)

Malpighi (1628-1694), See also:

• SWAMMERDAM, JAN (1637-168o)

Swammerdam (1637-168o), and See also:

• HOOK, JAMES CLARKE (1819-1907)
• HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD (1788-1841)
• HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR (1798-1875)

Hook (1635-1702) . The commencement of anatomical investigations deserves See also:

• NOTICE

notice here as influencing the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general accuracy and minuteness with which zoological work was prosecuted, but it was not until a See also:

• LATE

late date that their full See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence was brought to See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear upon systematic zoology by Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) . The most prominent name between that of Gesner and See also:

• LINNAEUS

Linnaeus in the history of systematic zoology is that of John See also:

• RAY (Lat. raia)
• RAY (or WRAY, as he wrote his name till 1670), JOHN (1628-1705)

Ray (1628-1705) . A chief merit of Ray is to have John limited the See also:

• TERM

term " See also:

• SPECIES

species " and to have assigned to Ran it the significance which it See also:

• BORE

bore till the Darwinian era, whereas previously it was loosely and vaguely applied . He also made 1 If we remember that by " blood " Aristotle understood " red blood," and that he did not know of the existence of colourless blood, his See also:

• PRIMARY

primary division is not a See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad one . One can imagine the See also:

• INTEREST

interest and astonishment with which the great See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek would have been filled had some unduly precocious See also:

• DISCIPLE

disciple shown to him the red-blood-See also:

• SYSTEM

system of the marine terrestrial Annelids; the red blood of Flanorbis, of A pus cancriformis, and of the Mediterranean See also:

• RAZOR (O.F. razor, mod. rasoir, from racer, to scrape, rase, Late Lat. rasare, frequentative of radere, to scrape)

razor shell, Solen legumen . 3 .

4 . 5 . Gearless considerable use of anatomical characters in his See also:

• DEFINITIONS

definitions of larger groups, and may thus be considered as the See also:

• FATHER

father of modern zoology . Associated with Ray in his work, and more especially occupied with the study of the See also:

• WORMS

Worms and See also:

• MOLLUSCA

Mollusca, was See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

Martin See also:

• LISTER, JOSEPH LISTER
• LISTER, MARTIN (c. 1638-1712)

Lister (1638–1712), celebrated also as the author of the first See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map . After Ray's death the progress of anatomical knowledge, and of the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery and See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration of new forms of animal life From from distant lands, continued with increasing vigour . Rayto We See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note the names of Vallisnieri (1661–1730) and Linnaeus . See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander See also:

• MONRO, DAVID BINNING (1836-1905)

Monro (1647–1767) the travellers See also:

• TOURNEFORT, JOSEPH PITTON DE (1656-1708)

Tournefort (1656–1708) and See also:

• SHAW, GEORGE BERNARD (1856– )
• SHAW, HENRY WHEELER (1818–1885)
• SHAW, LEMUEL (1781–1861)
• SHAW, RICHARD NORMAN (1831– )

Shaw (1692–1751); the collectors Rumphius (1637–1706) and Hans See also:

• SLOANE, SIR HANS (1660-1753)

Sloane (166o–17S3); the entomologist See also:

• REAUMUR, RENE ANTOINE FERCHAULT DE (1683-1757)

Reaumur (1683–1757); Lhwyd (1703) and Linck (1674–1734), the students of Star-Fishes; Peyssonel (b . 1694), the investigator of Polyps and the opponent of See also:

• MARSIGLI [Latinized MARSILIUS], LUIGI FERDINANDO, COUNT (1658–1730)

Marsigli and Reaumur, who held them to be See also:

• PLANTS

plants; See also:

• WOODWARD, JOHN
• WOODWARD, SAMUEL (179o-1838)

Woodward, the palaeontologist (1665–1722)—not to speak of others of less importance . Two years after Ray's death Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) was born . Unlike See also:

• JACOB
• JACOB, JOHN (1812-1858)

Jacob See also:

• THEODORE
• THEODORE (602-690)
• THEODORE (Fedor) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1741–1796)
• THEODORE (Rus. Fedor, or Feodor)

Theodore See also:

• KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD (1810–1876)

Klein (1685=1759), whose careful Linnaeus. treatises on various groups of plants and animals were published during the period between Ray and Linnaeus, the latter had his career marked out for him in a university, that of See also:

• UPSALA, or UPPSALA

Upsala, where he was first professor of See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine and subsequently of natural history . His lectures formed a new departure in the See also:

• ACADEMIC

academic treatment of zoology and See also:

• BOTANY (from Gr. l3or6v17, plant; ,66vicety, to graze)

botany, which, in See also:

• DIRECT

direct continuity from the middle ages, had hitherto been subjected to the traditions of the medical profession and regarded as See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere branches of " materia medica." Linnaeus taught zoology and botany as branches of knowledge to be studied for their own See also:

• INTRINSIC (through Fr. intrinsique, from Lat. intrinsecus, inwardly; inter, within, secus, following, from root of sequi, to follow)

intrinsic interest . His great work, the Systema naturae, ran through twelve See also:

• EDITIONS

editions during his lifetime (1st ed .

1735, 12th 1768) . Apart from his special discoveries in the See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

anatomy of plants and animals, and his descriptions of new species, the great merit of Linnaeus was his introduction of a method of enumeration and classification which may be said to have created systematic zoology and botany in their See also:

• PRESENT

present form, and establishes his name for ever as the great organizer, the See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man who recognized a great See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical want in the use of See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language and supplied it . Linnaeus adopted Ray's conception of species, but he made species a practical reality by insisting that every species shall have a double Latin name —the first See also:

• HALF

half to be the name of the genus common to several species, and the second half to be the specific name . Previously to Linnaeus See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long many-worded names had been used, sometimes with one additional See also:

• ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectives, added)

adjective, sometimes with another, so that no true names were fixed and accepted . Linnaeus by his See also:

• BINOMIAL (from the Lat. bi-, bis, twice, and nomen, a name or term)

binomial system made it possible to write and speak with accuracy of any given species of plant or animal . He was, in fact, the See also:

• ADAM
• ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288)
• ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741–1809)
• ADAM, JULIETTE (1836– )
• ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759)
• ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622)
• ADAM, PAUL (1862– )
• ADAM, ROBERT (1728—1792)
• ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781-1853)
• ADAM, WILLIAM (1751-1839)

Adam of zoological See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science . He proceeded further to introduce into his enumeration of animals and plants a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of groups, viz. genus, See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, class, which he compared to the subdivisions of an See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army or the subdivisions of a territory, the greater containing several of the less, as follows: Class . Order . Genus . Species . Variety . Genus sum- Genus inter- Genus proxi- Species .

Individuum . mum. medium. mum . Provincia . Territorium . Paroecia . Pagus . Domicilium . Legio . Cohors . Manipulus . Contubernium . See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

Miles .

Linnaeus himself recognized the purely subjective See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of his larger groups; for him species were, however, See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective: " there are, " he said, " just so many species as in the beginning the See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

Infinite Being created." It was reserved for a philosophic zoologist of the 19th century (See also:

• AGASSIZ, ALEXANDER EMANUEL (1835-191o)
• AGASSIZ, JEAN LOUIS RODOLPHE (1807-1893)

Agassiz, See also:

• ESSAY, ESSAYIST (Fr. essai, Late Lat. exagium, a weighing or balance; exigere, to examine; the term in general meaning any trial or effort)

Essay on Classification, 1859) to maintain that genus, order and class were also objective facts capable of precise estimation and valuation . This See also:

• CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

climax was reached at the very moment when See also:

• DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882)
• DARWIN, ERASMUS (1731-1802)

Darwin was See also:

• PUBLISHING

publishing the Origin of Species (1859), by which universal See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion has been brought to the position that species, as well as genera, orders and classes, are the subjective expressions ofa vast ramifying See also:

• PEDIGREE

pedigree in which the only objective existences are individuals, the apparent species as well as higher groups being marked out, not by any distributive See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, but by the inter-See also:

• ACTION

action of living See also:

• MATTER

matter and its See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical environment, causing the persistence of some forms and the destruction of vast series of ancestral intermediate kinds . The classification of Linnaeus (from Syst . Nat., 12th ed., 1766) should be compared with that of Aristotle . It Ciassifiis as follows—the See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of Linnaean genera cation of being here reproduced:— Linnaeus . Class I . See also:

• MAMMALIA (from Lat. mamma, a teat or breast)

MAMMALIA . Order 1 . See also:

• PRIMATES
• PRIMATES (Lat. primas, first)

Primates . Genera: Homo, Simia, See also:

• LEMUR (from Lat. lemures, " ghosts ")

Lemur, Vespertilio . 2 . Bruta .

Genera: Elephas, Trichecus, Bradypus, Myrmecophaga, Manis, Dasypus . Ferae . Genera : Phoca, Canis, Felis, Viverra, Mustela, Ursus, Didelphys, Talpa, Sorex, Erinaceus . Glires . Genera : Hystrix, Lepus, See also:

• CASTOR

Castor, See also:

• MUS

Mus, Sciurus, Noctilio . See also:

• PECORA (plural of Lat. pecus, cattle)

Pecora . Genera: Camelus, See also:

• MOSCHUS

Moschus, Cervus, Capra, Ovis, See also:

• BOS, LAMBERT (1670—1717)

Bos . Belluae . Genera: Equus, See also:

• HIPPOPOTAMUS (" river-horse," Gr. lames, horse and aoraµbs, river)

Hippopotamus, See also:

• SUS

Sus, See also:

• RHINOCEROS

Rhinoceros . Cete . Genera : Monodon, Balaena, Physeter, See also:

• DELPHINUS (" THE DOLPHIN ")

Delphinus . Class II .

AvES . Order i . Accipitres . Genera: Vultur, Falco, Strix, Lanius . 2 . Picae . Genera: (a) Trochilus, Certhia, Upupa, Buphaga, Sitta, Oriolus, Coracias, Gracula, Corms, Paradisea; (b) Ramphastos, See also:

• TROGON

Trogon, Psittacus, Crotophaga, See also:

• PICUS

Picus, Yunx, Cucutus, Bucco; (c) Buceros, Alcedo, Merops, Todos . Anseres . Genera: (a) Anas, Mergus, See also:

• PHAETHON (Gr. gSaEBwv, shining, radiant)

Phaethon, Plotus; (b) Rhyncops, Diomedea, Alca, Procellaria, Pelecanus, Larus, Sterna, Colymbus . Grallae . Genera: (a) Phoenicopterus, Platalea, Palamedea, Mycteria, See also:

• TANTALUS

Tantalus, See also:

• ARDEA

Ardea, Recurvirostra, Scolopax, Tringa, Fulica, Parra, Rallus, Psophia, Cancroma; (b) Hematopus, Charadrius, See also:

• OTIS, HARRISON GRAY (1765-1848)
• OTIS, JAMES (1725–1783)

Otis, Struthio . Gallinae .

Genera: Didus, Pave, Meleagris, Crax, Phasianus, Tetrao, Numida . 6 . Passeres . Genera: (a) Loxia, Fringilla, Emberiza; (b) Caprimulgus, Hirundo, Pipra; (c) Turdus, Ampelis, Tanagra, MYluscicapa; (d) Pants, Motacilla, Alauda, Sturnus, See also:

• COLUMBA, SAINT (Irish, Colum)

Columba . Class See also:

• ILL

Ill . AMPHIBIA . Order I . R.eptilia . Genera : Testudo, See also:

• DRACO (" the Dragon ")
• DRACO (7th century B.C.)

Draco, Lacerta, Rana . 2 . Serpentes . Genera: Crotalus, See also:

• BOA

Boa, Coluber, Anguis, See also:

• AMPHISBAENA (a Greek word, from &pegs, both ways, and flaivav, to go)

Amphisbaena, See also:

• CAECILIA
• CAECILIA, VIA

Caecilia .

See also:

• NANTES
• NANTES, EDICT OF

Nantes . Genera: Petromyzon, See also:

• RAJA

Raja, Squalus, See also:

• CHIMAERA

Chimaera, Lophius, Acipenser, Cyclepterus, Balistes, Ostracion, Tetrodon, Diodon, Centriscus, Syngnathus, See also:

• PEGASUS (from Gr. lrgyor, compact, strong)

Pegasus . Class IV . Pisces . Order 1 . Apodes . Genera: See also:

• MURAENA

Muraena, Gymnotus, Trichiurus, Anarrhichas, Ammodytes, Ophidium, Stromateus, Xiphias . 2 . Jugulares . Genera: Callionymus, Uranoscopus, Trachinus, Gadus, Blennius . Thoracici . Genera: Cepola, Echeneis, Coryphaena, Gobius, Coitus, Scorpaena, See also:

• ZEUS

Zeus, Pleuronectes, Chaetodon, Sparus, Labrus, Sciaena, Perca, Gasterosteus, Scomber, Mullus, Trigla .

Abdominales . Genera: Cobitis, Amia, Silurus, Zeuthis, Loricaria, Selmo, Fistularia, Esox, Elops, See also:

• ARGENTINA

Argentina, Atherina, Mugil, Mormyrus, Exocoetus, Polynemus, Clupea, Cyprinus . 3• 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 3• 4 . 5 . 3 . 3 . 4 . Class V .

INSECTA . Order I . See also:

• COLEOPTERA

Coleoptera . Genera: (a) Scarabaeus, Lucanus, Dermestes, Hister, Byrrhus, Gyrinus, Attelabus, Curculio, Silpha, Coccinella; (b) Bruchus, Cassida, Ptinus, Chrysomela, His pa, Meloe, Tenebrio, Lampyris, Mo>della, Staphylinus; (c) Cerambyx, Leptura, Cantharis, Elater, Cicindela, Buprestis, Dytiscus, Carabus, Necydalis, Forficula . 2 . See also:

• HEMIPTERA (Gr. 77µi-, half and IrTep6P, a wing)

Hemiptera . Genera: Blatta, See also:

• MANTIS

Mantis, Gryllus, Fulgora, See also:

• CICADA (Cicadidae)

Cicada, Notonecta, Nepa, Cimex, Aphis, Chermes, Coccus, Thrips . 3 . See also:

• LEPIDOPTERA (Gr. ?emir, a scale or husk, and 7rrepov, a wing)

Lepidoptera . Genera: Papilio, See also:

• SPHINX (Gr. Q¢lyyea', to draw tight, squeeze)

Sphinx, Phalaena . „ 4 . See also:

• NEUROPTERA (Gr. vevpov, a nerve, and ,rmpbv, a wing)

Neuroptera .

Genera: Libellula, Ephemera, Myrmeleon, Phryganea, Hemerobius, Panorpa, Raphidia . See also:

• HYMENOPTERA
• HYMENOPTERA (Gr. bµ$v, a membrane, and irrepov, a wing)

Hymenoptera . Genera: Cynips, Tenthredo, Sirex, See also:

• ICHNEUMON (Gr. ixveu)

Ichneumon, Sphex, Chrysis, Vespa, See also:

• APIS

Apis, Formica, Mutilla . 6 . See also:

• DIPTERA (Sir, double, arepa, wings)

Diptera . Genera: Oestrus, Tipula, Musca, Tabanus, Culex, Empis, Conops, Asilus, Bombylius, Hippobosca . See also:

• APTERA (Greek for " wingless ")

Aptera . Genera: (a) Pedibus See also:

• SEX (Lat. sexes; possibly connected with secure, to cut)

sex; capite a thorace discreto : Lepisma, Podura, Termes, Pediculus, Pulex . (b) Pedibus 8–14; capite thoraceque unitis: See also:

• ACARUS (from Gr. a.Kapc, a mite)

Acarus, Phalangium, Aranea, Scorpio, See also:

• CANCER (" THE CRAB ")
• CANCER, LUIS (d. 1549)
• CANCER, or CARCINOMA (from Lat. cancer, Gr. KapKivwga, an eating ulcer)

Cancer, Monoculus, Oniscus . (c) Pedibus pluribus; capite a thorace discreto: Scolopendra, lulus . Class VI . VERMES .

Order 1 . Intestina . Genera: (a) Pertusa laterali poro: Lumbricus, Sipunculus, Fasciola . (b) Imperforata poro laterali nullo: Gordius, Ascaris, Hirudo, Myxine . 2 . Mollusca . Genera: (a) Ore supero; basi se afligens: Actinia, Ascidia . (b) Ore antico; corpore pertuso laterali foraminulo: Limax, Aplysia, See also:

• DORIS

Doris, Tethis . (c) Ore antico; corpore tentaculis antice cincto: Holothuria, Terebella . (d) Ore antico; corpore brachiato: See also:

• TRITON

Triton, See also:

• SEPIA (Gr. a iria, cuttlefish)

Sepia, Clio, Lernaea, Scyllaea . (e) Ore antico; corpore pedato: Aphrodita, Nereis . (f) Ore infero centrali: See also:

• MEDUSA

Medusa, See also:

• ASTERIA

Asteria, See also:

• ECHINUS (Gr. for " hedge-hog " or " sea-urchin ")

Echinus .

^ 3 . Teslacea . Genera: (a) Multivalvia: See also:

• CHITON

Chiton, Lepas, Pholas . (b) Bivalvia (= Conchae) : Mya, Solen, Tellina, Cardium, Mactra, Donax, See also:

• VENUS

Venus, Spandylus, Chama, Arca, Ostrea, Anomia, Mytilus, Pinna . (c) Univalvia spira regulari (= Cochleae) : Argonauta,, See also:

• NAUTILUS

Nautilus, Conus, Cypraea, Bulla, Voluta, Buccinum, Strombus, Murex, Trochus, Turbo, See also:

• HELIX (Gr. € tE, a spiral or twist)

Helix, Nerita, Haliotis . (d) Univalvia absque spira regulari: Patella, Dentalium, Serpula, See also:

• TEREDO

Teredo, Sabella . • 4 . Lithophyta . Genera: Tubipora, Madrepora, Millepora, Cellepora . 5 . Zoophyta . Genera: (a) Fixata: Isis, Gorgonia, Alcyonium, Spongia, Flustra, Tubularia, Corallina, Sertularia, See also:

• VORTICELLA

Vorticella .

(b) Locomotiva: See also:

• HYDRA
• HYDRA (or SDRA, NIDRA, IDERO, &c.; anc. Hydrea)
• HYDRA (watersnake)

Hydra, Pennatula, See also:

• TAENIA (Gr. Tatyla, ribbon, fillet)

Taenia, Volvox, Furia, See also:

• CHAOS

Chaos . The characters of the six classes are thus given by Linnaeus: See also:

• COR

Cor biloculare, biauritum; Sanguine calido, rubro: Cor uniloculare, uniauritum; 1 2 Sanguine frigido; rubro: Cor uniloculare, inauritum; Sanie frigida, albida: 1 The anatomical See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error in reference to the auricles of Reptiles and Batrachians on the part of Linnaeus is extremely interesting, since it shows to what an extent the most patent facts may See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape the observation of even the greatest observers, and what an amount of repeated See also:

• DISSECTION (from Lat. dissecare, to cut apart)

dissection and unprejudiced See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention has been necessary before the structure of the commonest animals has become known . Between Linnaeus and Cuvier there are no very great names; but under the stimulus given by the admirable method and system of Linnaeus observation and description From of new forms from all parts of the world, both Linnaeus recent and fossil, accumulated . We can only cite the to cuvter . names of See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles See also:

• BONNET
• BONNET, CHARLES (172o–1793)

Bonnet (1720-1793), the entomologist, who described the See also:

• REPRODUCTION

reproduction of Aphis; See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

Banks and Solander, who accompanied See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

Captain See also:

• COOK
• COOK, ALBERT STANBURROUGH (1853– )
• COOK, EDWARD DUTTON (1829–1883)
• COOK, ELIZA (1818–1889)
• COOK, JAMES (1728-1779)
• COOK, THOMAS (1808-1892)

Cook on his first voyage( 1768–1771); See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• PENNANT, THOMAS (1726-1798)

Pennant (1726–1798), the describer of the See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• FAUNA

fauna; See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter See also:

• SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692)
• SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814–1896)
• SIMON, RICHARD (1638–1712)
• SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816–1904)
• SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665)

Simon See also:

• PALLAS, PETER SIMON (1741–1811)

Pallas (1741-181I), who specially extended the knowledge of the Linnaean Vermes, and under the patronage of the empress See also:

• CATHERINE
• CATHERINE, SAINT

Catherine explored See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia and See also:

• SIBERIA

Siberia; De Geer (1720–1778), the entomologist; Lyonnet (17o7--1789), the author of the monograph of the anatomy of the See also:

• CATERPILLAR

caterpillar of Cossus ligniperdus; Cavolini (1756--18ro), the Neapolitan marine zoologist and forerunner of Della Chiaje (fl . 1828); O . F . See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller (1730-1784), the describer of fresh-water See also:

• OLIGOCHAETA

Oligochaeta; See also:

• ABRAHAM, or ABRAM (Hebrew for " father is high ")

Abraham Trembley (1700–1784), the student of Hydra; and O . F . Ledermuller (1719–1769), the inventor of the term See also:

• INFUSORIA

Infusoria . The effect of the Linnaean system upon the general conceptions of zoologists was no less marked than were its results in the way of stimulating the See also:

• ACCUMULATION (from Lat. accumulare, to heap up)

accumulation of accurately observed details . The notion of a scala naturae, which had since the days of classical antiquity been a part of the general See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy of nature amongst those who occupied themselves with such conceptions, now took a more definite form in the minds of skilled zoologists .

The species of Linnaeus were supposed to represent a aeries of steps in a See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale of ascending complexity, and it was thought possible thus to arrange the animal See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom in a single series—the orders within the classes succeeding one another in See also:

• REGULAR

regular gradation, and the classes succeeding one another in a similar rectilinear progression . J . B . P. de See also:

• LAMARCK,

Lamarck (1744–1829) represents most completely, both by his development theory (to be further Lamarck's mentioned below) and by his See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme of classifica- atesstfttion, the high-water See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark of the popular but cation, fallacious conception of a scala naturae . His classification (1801–1812) is as follows: Invertebrata . 1 . Apathetic Animals . Class I . INFUSORIA . Orders: Nuda, See also:

• APPENDICULATA

Appendiculata . Class II . PoLYPI .

Orders: Ciliati (See also:

• ROTIFERA (or ROTATORIA)

Rotifera), Denudati (Hydroids), Vaglnati (See also:

• ANTHOZOA (i.e. " flower-animals ")

Anthozoa and See also:

• POLYZOA

Polyzoa), Natantes (Crinoids) . Class III . RADIARIA . Orders: Mollia (Acalephae), See also:

• ECHINODERMA

Echinoderma (including Actiniae) . Class IV . See also:

• TUNICATA

TUNICATA . Orders: Bothryllaria, Ascidia . Class V . VERMES . Orders: Molles (Tape-Worms and Flukes), Rigiduli (Nematoids), Hispiduli (Nais, &c.), Epitoariae (Lernaeans, &c.) . 2 . Sensitive Animals .

Class VI . INSECTA (See also:

• HEXAPODA (Gr. 4, six, and gobs, foot)

Hexapoda) . Orders: Aptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Neuroptera, See also:

• ORTHOPTERA (Gr. Op®os, straight, and rTepov, a wing)

Orthoptera, Coleoptera . Class VII . See also:

• ARACHNIDA

ARACHNIDA . Orders: Antennato-Trachealia (=See also:

• THYSANURA

Thysanura and See also:

• MYRIAPODA (Gr. for " many-legged ")

Myriapoda), Exantennato-Trachealia, Exantennato-Branchialia . Class VIII . CRUSTACEA . Orders: Heterobranchia (See also:

• BRANCHIOPODA

Branchiopoda, Isopoda, Amphipoda, Stomapoda), Homobranchia (Decapoda) . Class IX . See also:

• ANNELIDA

ANNELIDA . Orders : A poda, Antennata, Sedentaria .

Class X . CIRRIPEDIA . Orders : Sessilia, Pedunculata . Class XI . CONCHIFERA . Orders: Dimyaria, Monomyaria . Class XII . MOLLUSCA . Orders: See also:

• PTEROPODA

Pteropoda, Gasteropada, Trachelipoda, Cephalopoda, Heteropoda . See also:

• VERTEBRATA

Vertebrata . 3 . Intelligent Animals .

Class XIII . FISHES . Class XV: BIRDS . , XIV . REPTILES . „ XVI . MAMMALS . 5 . 7 . ,, „ viviparis, Mammalibus; oviparis, Avibus . pulmone arbitrario, Amphibiis; branchiis externis, Piscibus. antennatis, Insectis; tentaculatis, Vermibus . The enumeration of orders above given will enable the reader to form some conception of the progress of knowledge See also:

• RELATING

relating to the See also:

• LOWER

lower forms of life during the fifty See also:

• ODD (in middle English odde, from old Norwegian oddi, an angle of a triangle; the old Norwegian oddamann is used of the third man who gives a casting vote in a dispute)

odd years which intervened between Linnaeus and Lamarck .

The number of genera recognized by Lamarck is more than ten times as great as that recorded by Linnaeus . We have mentioned Lamarck before his great contemporary Cuvier because, in spite of his valuable philosophical See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of development, he was, as compared with Cuvier and estimated as a systematic zoologist, a mere enlargement and logical out-come of Linnaeus . The distinctive merit of G . L . Cuvier (1769–1832) is that he started a new view as to the relationship of animals, which he Cuvkr. may be said in a large measure to have demon- strated as true by his own anatomical researches . He opposed the scala naturae theory, and recognized four distinct and divergent branches or embranchemens, as he called them, in each of which he arranged a certain number of the Linnaean classes, or similar classes . The embranchemens were characterized each by a different type of anatomical structure . Cuvier thus laid the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of that branching See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree-like arrangement of the classes and orders of animals now recognized as being the necessary result of attempts to represent what is practically a genealogical tree or pedigree . Apart from this, Cuvier was a keen-sighted and enthusiastic anatomist of great skill and See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry.;, It is astonishing how many See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good observers it re-quires to dissect and draw and See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record over and over again the structure of an animal before an apps iximately correct See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of it is obtained . Cuvier dissected many Molluscs and other animals which had not previously been anatomized; of others he gave more correct accounts than had been given by earlier writers . Another special distinction of Cuvier is his remarkable work in comparing extinct with recent organisms, his descriptions of the fossil Mammalia of the Paris See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin, and his general application of the knowledge of recent animals to the reconstruction of extinct ones, as indicated by fragments only of their skeletons . It was in 1812 that Cuvier communicated to the See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy of Sciences of Paris his views on the classification of animals .

He says: " Si Von considere le regne animal d'apres See also:

• LES

les principes que nous venons de poser, en se debarassant See also:

• DES

des prejuges etablis sur les divisions anciennement admises, en n'ayant egard qu' a I'organisation et a la nature des animaux, et non pas a leur grandeur, a leur utilite, au plus ou mains de connaissance que nous en avons, ni a toutes les autres circonstances accessoires, on trouvera qu'il existe quatre formes principales, quatre plans generaux, si l'on pent s'exprimer ainsi, d'apres lesquels tous les animaux semblent avoir ete rnodeles et dont les divisions ulterieures, de quelque titre que les naturalistes les aient decorees, ne sont que des modifications assez legeres, fondees sur le developpement, ou l'addition de quelques parties qui ne changent rien a l'essence du See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan." Cuvk?s His classification as finally elaborated in Le Regne classification . .- catto Animal (Paris, 1829) is as follows: First See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

Branch . Animalia Vertebrata . Class I, MAMMALIA . Orders: Biniana, Quadrumana, See also:

• CARNIVORA

Carnivora, See also:

• MARSUPIALIA
• MARSUPIALIA (from Lat. marsupium, a "pouch," or "bag")

Marsupialia, See also:

• RODENTIA

Rodentia, See also:

• EDENTATA

Edentata, Pachydermata, See also:

• RUMINANTIA

Ruminantia, See also:

• CETACEA
• CETACEA (from the Gr. ,Eros, a whale)

Cetacea . Class II . BIRDS . Orders: Accipitres, Passeres, Scansores, Gallinae, Grallae, Palmipedes . Class III . REPTILIA . Orders : Chelonia, Sauria, Ophidia, See also:

• BATRACHIA

Batrachia . Class IV .

FISHES . Orders: (a) Acanthopterygii, Abdominales, Subbrachii, A podes, Lophobranchii, Plectognathi; (b) Sturiones, Selachii, Cyclostomi . Second Branch . Animalia Mollusca . Class I . CEPHALOPODA . Class II . PTEROPODA . Class III . GASTROPODA . Orders: Pulmonala, Nudibranchia, Inferobranchia, Tecti- branchia, Heteropoda, Pectinibranchia, Tubulibranchia, Scutibranchia, Cyclobranchia . Class IV .

See also:

• ACE (derived through the Lat. as, from the Tarentine form of the Gr. etc)

ACE PHALA . Orders: Testacea; Tunicata . Class V . See also:

• BRACHIOPODA

BRACHIOPODA . Class VI . CIRRIIOPODA . Third Branch . Animalia See also:

• ARTICULATA

Articulata . Class I . ANNELIDES . Orders: Tubicolae, Dorsibranchiae, Abranchiae . Class II .

CRUSTACEA . Orders: (a)' See also:

• MALACOSTRACA

Malacostraca: Decapoda, Stomapoda, Amphipoda, Laernodipoda, Isopoda; (b) See also:

• ENTOMOSTRACA

Entomostraca: Branchiopoda, Poecilopoda, Trilobitae . Class III . ARACHNIDES . Orders: Pulmonariae, Tracheariae . Class IV . INSECTS . Orders: Myriapoda, Thysanura, Parasita, Suctoria, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Hemiptera, Neuroptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Rhipiptera, Diptera . See also:

• FOURTH

Fourth Branch . Animalia See also:

• RADIATA

Radiata . Class I . ECHINODERMS .

Orders: Pedicellata, Apoda . Class II . INTESTINAL WORMS . Orders: Neuzatoidea, Parenchymatosa . Class III . ACALEPHAE . Orders: Simplices, Hydrostaticae . Class IV . POLYPI (including the See also:

• COELENTERA

Coelentera of later authorities and the Polyzoa) . Orders: Carnosi, Gelatinosi, Polypiarii . Class V . INFUSORIA .

Orders: Rotifera, Homogenea (this includes the See also:

• PROTOZOA (Gr. 7rpwros, first, and i'woe, living thing)

Protozoa of recent writers and some Protophyla) . The leading See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of Cuvier, his four embranchemens, was See also:

• CON

con-firmed by the Russo-See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVI