See also:

• TABOO (also written tapu and tabu)

TABOO (also written tapu and tabu)  , the Polynesian name given to prohibitions enforced by religious or magical sanctions . As a verb it means to " prohibit," as an See also:

• ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectives, added)

adjective " prohibited, sacred, dangerous, unclean." 1 . The word " See also:

• TABOO (also written tapu and tabu)

taboo " or its dialectical forms are found throughout See also:

• POLYNESIA, (Gr. iroXi,, many, and vnno-os, island)
• POLYNESIA, MELANESIA, MICRONESIA (q.v.)

Polynesia; in See also:

• MELANESIA

Melanesia the See also:

• TERM

term is tambu; in various parts of Malaysia and the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East Indies pantang, bobosso, pamalli, &c.; in See also:

• MADAGASCAR

Madagascar fadi includes taboo; in See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• AMERICA

America the Dakota term wakan bears a similar meaning . Taboo is perhaps derived from ta, to See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark, and pu, an adverb of intensity . 2 . Fundamental Ideas.—In taboo proper are combined two notions which with the progress of See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization have become differentiated—(i) sacred and (ii.) impure, or unclean; it must be See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne in mind that the impurity is sacred, and is not derived from contact with See also:

• COMMON

common things . It does not imply any moral quality; it has been defined as an indication of a connexion with the gods, or a separation from See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary purposes and exclusive See also:

• APPROPRIATION (from Lat. appropriare, to set aside)

appropriation to persons or things considered sacred; sometimes it means devoted by a See also:

• VOW (Lat. votum, vow, promise: cf. VOTE)

vow." This See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition does not See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover the whole See also:

• CONNOTATION

connotation of taboo as it is employed at the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, but it indicates clearly the non-moral See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea . The ordinary usage is perhaps best defined—the statement that taboo is " negative magic," i.e. See also:

• ABSTINENCE (from Lat. abstinere, to abstain)

abstinence from certain acts, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order that undesired magical results may not follow; in this sense a taboo is simply a See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual See also:

• PROHIBITION (Lat. prohibere, to prevent)

prohibition . Properly speaking taboo includes only (a) the sacred (or unclean) character of persons or things, (b) the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of prohibition which results from this character, and (c) the sanctity (or uncleanness) which results from a violation of the prohibition . The converse of taboo in Polynesia is noa and allied forms, which mean " See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general " or " common " ; by a curious coincidence noa is the term used in Central See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia to See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express the relation of persons of opposite sexes on whose intercourse there is no restriction . 3 . See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

Classification.—Various classes of taboo in the wider sense may be distinguished: (i) natural or See also:

• DIRECT

direct, the result of mana (mysterious See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power) inherent in a See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person or thing; (ii.) communicated or indirect, equally the result of mana, but (a) acquired or (b) imposed by a See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest, See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief or other person; (iii.) intermediate, where both factors are present, as in the appropriation of a wife to her See also:

• HUSBAND

husband .

These three classes are those of taboo proper . The term taboo is also applied to ritual prohibitions of a different nature; but its use in these senses is better avoided . It might be argued that the term should be extended to embrace cases in which the See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction of the prohibition is the creation of a See also:

• GOD

god or spirit, i.e. to religious interdictions as distinguished from magical, but there is neither automatic See also:

• ACTION

action nor contagion in such a See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case, and a better term for it is Religious See also:

• INTERDICTION

interdiction . 4 . See also:

• OBJECTS

Objects.—The objects of taboo are many: (i.) direct taboos aim at (a) the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of important persons—chiefs, priests, &c.—and things against harm; (b) the safeguarding of the weak—See also:

• WOMEN

women, See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children and common See also:

• PEOPLE

people generally—from the powerful mana (magical See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence) of chiefs and priests ; (c) the See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision against the dangers incurred by handling or coming in contact with corpses, by eating certain foods, &c.; (d) the guarding the chief acts of See also:

• LIFE

life—See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth, See also:

• INITIATION (Lat. inilium, beginning, entrance, from mire, to go in)

initiation, See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage and sexual functions, &c., against interference; (e) the securing of human beings against the wrath or power of gods and See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits; (f) the securing of unborn infants and See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young children, who stand in a specially sympathetic relation with one or both parents, from the consequences of certain actions, and more especially from the communication of qualities sup-posed to be derived from certain foods . (ii.) Taboos are imposed in order to secure against thieves the See also:

• PROPERTY

property of an individual, his See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields, tools, &c . 5 . Sanctions.—The sanctions of taboo may be (i.) natural or direct; social or indirect . Natural sanctions are (a) automatic, where the See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment of the offender results from the operation of natural See also:

• LAWS

laws without any See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element of volition, just as some kinds of magic are held to bring about their results without the intervention of a spirit; (b) animistic, where the See also:

• PENALTY (Lat. poena, punishment)

penalty results from the wrath of a god, deceased human being, or other spirit . The See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive of the social sanction is ultimately religious or magical, but the penalties incurred by the violator of a taboo are social; they are inflicted by other members of the community, firstly, as a means of averting the supernatural sanctions, which, not having fallen on the actual offender, may visit his See also:

• INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS)
• INNOCENT (POPES)

innocent See also:

• FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1799-1860)

fellows; and secondly, as a means of discouraging other offenders; in these cases the criminal is not himself taboo, but, thanks to his mana, braves the supernatural consequences; the social penalty is also inflicted on those who, like mourners, are themselves taboo and refuse to take steps to seclude themselves, in See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of the community; in the first class the social penalty is at once repressive and prophylactic, saving the innocent by punishing the guilty, and thus averting by a piaculum the vengeance which would otherwise fall somewhere; in the second the penalty is purely repressive . The violation of a taboo makes the offender himself taboo; other penalties are not unkown: thus a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man who partakes of a forbidden See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal will break out in sores or the animal will reproduce itself within him and devour his vitals . Sometimes it is thought that the penalty falls on the kinswomen of the offender and that they produce, instead of children, animals of the taboo See also:

• SPECIES

species .

In Melanesia See also:

• BURIAL

burial-grounds are taboo, and if the See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

shadow of a passer-by falls on one, this entails upon him the loss of his soul; sometimes misfortune is held to See also:

• DOG

dog the footsteps of the offender in this life and the next . But in some of these cases the observer who reports them has probably confused taboos proper with negative magic . The social sanctions range from the See also:

• DEATH

death penalty down to the infliction of a See also:

• FINE

fine or exaction of See also:

• MONEY

money See also:

• COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

compensation; the Polynesian See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom of despoiling a man who breaks a taboo is perhaps a See also:

• SPECIAL

special case of this penalty, but the practice of ceremonial plundering cannot always be so explained, and may perhaps in this case too be capable of an entirely different explanation . Possibly the See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage is more susceptible to See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion than civilized man; at any See also:

• RATE

rate, cases are not unknown in which the violation of a taboo has been followed by illness or even death, when the offender discovers his See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error . Not unnaturally See also:

• RITES

rites of See also:

• PURIFICATION

purification See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act as See also:

• COUNTER

counter suggestions and See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save the offender from the effects of his erroneous beliefs . 6 . Mana.—In the case of automatic taboos, and to some extent of other ritual prohibitions, the penalties for violation are unequal; they may be regarded as varying with the relation between the mana of the person or See also:

• OBJECT

object and the mana of the offender against the prohibition . In the words of Dr R . H . See also:

• CODRINGTON, CHRISTOPHER (1668-1710)
• CODRINGTON, SIR EDWARD (1770-1851)

Codrington, mana " is a power or influence, not See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical and in a way supernatural; but it shows itself in physical force or in any kind of power or excellence which a man possesses . This mana is not fixed in anything, and can be conveyed in almost anything; but spirits, whether disembodied souls or supernatural (i.e. non-human) beings, have it and can impartit; and it essentially belongs to See also:

• PERSONAL

personal beings to originate it, though it may act through the See also:

• MEDIUM

medium of See also:

• WATER

water, or a See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone or a See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone " (cf. the suhman of See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, in See also:

• FETISHISM

FETISHISM) . Persons or things which are regarded as taboo may be compared to objects charged with See also:

• ELECTRICITY

electricity; they are the seat of a tremendous power which is transmissible by contact, and may be liberated with destructive effect if the organisms which provoke its See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge are too weak to resist it; the result of a violation of a taboo depends partly on the strength of the magical influence inherent in the taboo object or person, partly on the strength of the opposing mana of the violator of the taboo .

Thus, See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings and chiefs are possessed of See also:

• GREAT

great power, and it is death for their subjects to address them directly; but a See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister or other person of greater mana than common can approach them unharmed, and can in turn be approached by their inferiors without See also:

• RISK

risk . The burial-See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place is often taboo for the common people, save when they are actually engaged in funeral rites; but the sorcerer, thanks to his indwelling power, can resist the deadly influences which would destroy • the common folk, and may enter a See also:

• CEMETERY (Gr. Korrsnri7pwv, from Hoiµav, to sleep)

cemetery for ritual or other purposes . So too indirect taboos depend for their strength on the mana of him who imposes them; if it is a chief or a priest, they are more powerful than those imposed by a common person . The mana of the priest, or chief, does not depend on his position; on the contrary, it is thanks to his mana that he has risen above the common See also:

• HERD (a word common to Teutonic languages; the O. Eng. form was heord; cf. Ger. Herde, Swed. and Dan. hjord; the Sans. ca'rdhas, which shows the pre-Teutonic form, means a troop)

herd . 7 . Transmissibility.—It is characteristic of taboo proper that it is transmissible; as a logical corollary of this idea, acquired taboo may be thrown off by suitable magical or purificatory ceremonies; the mourner, or he who takes See also:

• PART

part in funeral ceremonies; was perhaps at the outset regarded as a person charged with death-dealing power, and fear of the spirit of the dead may well have been secondary; however this may be, we can distinguish taboos, the violation of which charges with supernatural power the human being who violates them, thus rendering him directly dangerous to the community, from ritual prohibitions the violation of which makes him an outcast, not as himself dangerous, but as a person See also:

• OBNOXIOUS (Lat. obnoxiosus, from ob, over, against, and noxa, harm)

obnoxious to the gods . The ritual prohibitions of pregnancy, and the restrictions imposed on the parents during the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early childhood of their offspring, are not taboos proper; though they are transmissible, they do not depend on the transmission of an undifferentiated mana; what the parents seek to avoid is often the transmission of specific qualities, conceived as inherent in certain animals, e.g. cowardice in the See also:

• HARE
• HARE, SIR JOHN (1844– )

hare, slowness in the See also:

• TORTOISE

tortoise; the animal is not necessarily in any sense sacred, nor are the parents, if they disregard the prohibition, liable to any penalty, direct or indirect; neither they nor the See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child are rendered taboo by any violation; finally, save that the child acquires its qualities by a sympathetic See also:

• PROCESS

process, the abstinence of the parents is correlative to the converse operation of eating an animal or otherwise acquiring by a magical process the See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good qualities inherent in anything . 8 . Duration of Taboos, See also:

• IMPOSITION (from Lat. imponere, to place or lay upon)

Imposition, and See also:

• ABROGATION (Lat. abrogare, to repeal or annul a law; rogare, literally " to ask," to propose a law)

Abrogation.—Taboo is properly sanctity and the kind of See also:

• INTERDICT (Lat. interdictum, from interdicere, to forbid by decree, lit., interpose by speech)

interdict which it entrains; by a transference of meaning it is sometimes used of a See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time during which ritual prohibitions of a religious nature are enforced; these periods were proclaimed in Polynesia on important occasions and sometimes lasted for many years; they may be termed interdicts . Many persons and things are permanently taboo; among them may be mentioned kings and chiefs, the property of dead persons and, a fortiori, their bodies or anything in contact with them . Other taboos are temporary . Temporary direct taboos, whether natural or acquired, may be removed by a process of desacralization or of purification .

Thus, new crops are frequently taboo till the chief has partaken of them; his mana enables him to run risks which would be fatal to ordinary people, and the crops thus desacralized become See also:

• FREE

free to all; perhaps, however, we may regard the practice as a case of sacralization, in which the !chief, like a sacrificing priest, acquires special sanctity, and in so doing fortifies his people by a sympathetic process against supernatural dangers . A new-See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born child may also make the crops noa, just as it may remove the taboo from a temporarily affected person . In the See also:

• TONGA, or FRIENDLY ISLANDS (so called by Captain Cook)

Tonga Islands a person who became taboo by touching a chief or his property had to put away his sacred character, before he was allowed to make use of his lands, by touching the soles of a higher chief's feet and washing in water . Strangers before penetrating into a See also:

• VILLAGE

village, priests after a See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice, warriors, women after child-birth, at See also:

• PUBERTY (Lat. pubertas, from pubes, puber, mature, adult)

puberty, the menstrual period, &c., must submit to See also:

• LUSTRATION

lustration . Sometimes the purification was effected by inhaling the sacred contagion; in New See also:

• ZEALAND (also SEALAND Or SEELAND; Danish Sjaelland)

Zealand a chief who touched his own See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head had to apply his fingers to his See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose and See also:

• SNUFF (from " to snuff, " i.e. to inhale, to draw in through the nose; cf. Dutch snuf, scent, Ger. Schnupfen, a cold, catarrh, and Eng. " snuffle, " " sniff, " &c.)

snuff up the sanctity abstracted from his head . In other cases See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere See also:

• LAPSE (Lat. lapses, a slip or departure)

lapse of time suffices to cause the removal of a taboo; in Melanesia, where taboos are largely animistic, mourners go away for some months ;end on their return are free from taboo, the explanation given being that the spirit has got tired of waiting for them . Indirect taboos are imposed in various ways, and unless they are removed may be as permanent as direct taboos, save that the death of the persons by whom they are imposed must result in their abrogation . In Polynesia a general taboo was imposed by See also:

• PROCLAMATION (Lat. proclamare, to make public by announcement)

proclamation; a chief might also taboo particular objects to his own use by naming them after a part of his person; more permanent was the taboo imposed by touching an object, but this too could be removed by proper ceremonies . In Melanesia, corresponding to the animistic character of tambu, a method of imposing taboo is to mention the name of some spirit . Taboo objects were marked in various ways: a piece of See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• CLOTH

cloth, a bunch of leaves, a bundle of branches (in Melanesia) painted red and white, a stick with dry leaves, are among the methods in common use; in See also:

• SAMOA

Samoa one mark of a taboo was to set up the See also:

• IMAGE (Lat. imago, perhaps from the same root as imitari, copy, imitate)

image of a See also:

• SHARK

shark; in New Zealand it sufficed to give a chop with an See also:

• AXE (0. Eng. aex; a word common, in different forms, in the Teutonic languages, and akin to the Greek 41v17; the New English Dictionary prefers the spelling " ax ")

axe to make a See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree taboo . Particular taboos thus imposed seem to be abrogated by the See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

declaration of the person who imposes them; on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, he, no less than others, is See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound by the taboo until it is abrogated . 9 .

Taboo and the See also:

• EVOLUTION

Evolution of Punishment.—Penal codes may be largely, if not wholly, traced to religious See also:

• SOURCES

sources of which taboo is certainly one; the violation of any taboo may imperil the life or See also:

• HEALTH

health of other members of the community besides the offender; it calls for See also:

• MEASURES

measures intended to discourage others, as well as for steps to avert the immediate evil; if a taboo imposed by a chief is disregarded, not only has his authority been set at nought, but he, and in the second place, other members of the community may suffer if the real offender gets off See also:

• SCOT, MICHAEL (? 1175-1232)

scot free, thanks to the mana which enables him to defy supernatural sanctions . The importance of this in the evolution of See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law and order is See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest; for whereas a chief would not intervene to protect the property of an individual simply to punish what we regard as a transgression, he is bound to do so when a taboo is broken . That the taboo may be of his own imposition does not affect the question, for he is bound to observe it himself, and conversely may suffer supernatural penalties when it is violated by another . Just as See also:

• BLOOD

blood-guiltiness may be wiped out by See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition, the violation of a taboo may be atoned for by a money See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment or similar See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration for the revocation of the taboo; this compensation seems to have a retrospective effect, and thereby removes the dangers brought into existence by the violation . io . Taboo and Moral See also:

• OBLIGATION

Obligation.—In proportion as a taboo becomes a custom and its sanctions fall into the background and are forgotten, its obligations thus transformed are one source of the categorical imperative, the distinguishing feature of which is that it is non-rational and instinctive . We are ignorant of the origin of See also:

• EXOGAMY (Gr. few, outside; and yaµor, marriage)

exogamy and the prohibition of See also:

• INCEST (Lat. incestus, unchaste)

incest, the sanctions of which in Australia and among other peoples of See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low culture seem to be purely! social, for as a See also:

• RULE

rule irregular marriages seem to be regarded simply as offences against tribal morality; if the rules were originally of the nature of taboos, the transformation into customs must have been very early, and the same may be said of the rules by which the relations of members of the same See also:

• KIN (0. E. cyn, a word represented in nearly all Teutonic languages, cf. Du. kunne, Dan. and Swed. kon, Goth kuni, tribe; the Teutonic base is kunya; the equivalent Aryan root gan- to beget, produce, is seen in Gr. 'yEvos, Lat. genus, cf. "kind")

kin are regulated . rr . Royal and Priestly Taboos.—Among people of low culture the chief, and in higher cultures the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king, is sometimes held responsible for the order of nature, the increase of the crops, and the welfare of his people generally; it is therefore of the highest importance that nothing should diminish or perturb his influence, and, as a logical consequence, the life of the king, and to a less degree of the chief, is surrounded with a complicated See also:

• SYSTEM

system of taboos and ritual prohibitions . Even where this idea of the magician-king or chief is not found, his position is an expression of the more powerful mana dwelling within him; consequently the king or chief may not come in contact with the common folk, for fear his See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch should blast them, as See also:

• LIGHTNING

lightning withers the life of the See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak . We can usually see why a king or chief must hold aloof from those whom he might injure, but it is not always easy to see the basic idea of the taboos, if such they be, which aim at protecting the potentate, or ensuring his due regulation of the course of nature . Some See also:

• AFRICAN

African kings may not see the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea; another may not See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie down to See also:

• SLEEP (0. Eng. slcepan; Ger. schlafen; cf. Lat. labi, to glide, and " slip ")

sleep; in the Mentawei Islands the chief will See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die who during an interdict eats at the same time as common people; it is frequently for-bidden to see the king partake of See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food .

At a further See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of evolution these taboos degenerate into mere rules of See also:

• ETIQUETTE

etiquette, the violation of which involves the punishment of the offender, but the punishment is justified on formal grounds only . In early society the king and the priest often stand very near together; just as we find a See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war chief and a See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace chief, so we meet with See also:

• POLITICAL

political and religious sovereigns . Sometimes the political king is also the priest and therefore sacred; the See also:

• WEB (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Du. webbe, Dan. vaev, Ger. Gewebe, all from the Teutonic wabh—to weave)

web of ritual prohibition See also:

• WOVEN

woven See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round him may result in the creation of a See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular authority like the Tycoon in See also:

• JAPAN

Japan, who can rule the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state without reference to the ceremonial observances prescribed for the nominal See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign . Sometimes, on the other hand, the priest bears the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of king, but has lost even the shadow of political power and is free to perform his priestly functions . In these, however, as we see by the example of the See also:

• FLAMEN (from flare, " to blow up " the altar fire)

flamen dialis at See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, or the kings of See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire and water in See also:

• CAMBODIA

Cambodia, he is still hedged round by manifold restrictions as a person who must be protected from doing harm to others or suffering harm himself . In the exercise of his priestly functions he is called upon to offer sacrifice; before fulfilling his See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office he is often required to submit to additional ritual prohibitions; his personal sanctity, already great, is augmented, and his approach to the See also:

• SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place)

sanctuary facilitated . Conversely, the sacrifice over, he performs lustral rites, in part to free himself from the taint of errors of ritual, but also to desacralize himself . 12 . Funerary and Allied Taboos.—Taboos of mourners, widows, and of the dead are common all the See also:

• WORLD

world over, but they are especially prominent in Melanesia . These are explained on an animistic See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis as due to the fear of the dead man's spirit, but we seem to see traces, e.g. in Madagascar, of the idea that the contagion of death and not the wrath of the dead is the underlying motive; for it is not clear why the soul of a dead kinsman should necessarily be hostile . With funerary taboos may be compared taboos of warriors both on and after an expedition, taboos of hunters during the See also:

• CHASE
• CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND (1808-1873)
• CHASE, SAMUEL (1741–1811)
• CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT (1849– )

chase and especially after killing a dangerous animal, taboos of cannibals, and on participants in all other ceremonies which involve contact with death or the dead . Temporary seclusion and lustration before return to ordinary life are commonly prescribed for all in this See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category, even though their connexion with the dead be no closer than is implied in See also:

• CONSANGUINITY, or KINDRED

consanguinity .

The property of the dead man is commonly burnt or deposited with him in the See also:

• GRAVE

grave, in part as a protective measure, in part under the influence of belief in the continuity of this and the future life, and the need of supplying him with necessaries . Burial grounds are avoided, animals or See also:

• PLANTS

plants from the neighbourhood are not used as food . Finally the name of the dead is not used, partly for fear of summoning him by the power of the word, but partly also from a conviction that, like the name of a king or chief, it is too See also:

• HOLY

holy or too dangerous for common use . 13 . Taboos of the Sick.—Both disease and death are unnatural in the eyes of the savage; they are often the result of the magic of some enemy; but they may also be the result of an infraction of a taboo . Some part of the funerary taboos may perhaps be referred to this belief; whatever be the case with taboos of the dead, there can be no question that the sick are secluded or even abandoned, subjected to rites of purification and to restrictions of various sorts, not because their malady is contagious in our sense, but because they are temporarily taboo and dangerous to the health of the community . The sick have imposed on them curative as well as prophylactic taboos; in Madagascar the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun is said to " die " when it sets; therefore it is forbidden to a sick man to look upon it as it goes down . 14 . Taboos of Women, Sexual Taboos, Avoidance.—The See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of puberty is especially dangerous for both sexes; in the case of a woman the danger is not so much for herself as for others, and results from her physiological state; this danger is renewed with each successive menstrual period, and the frequently See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long seclusion at puberty finds a parallel in the universal practice in See also:

• LOWER

lower stages of culture of separating adult See also:

• FEMALES

females, not only from See also:

• MALES

males, but from the whole of the community at such periods . At puberty girls are confined for months or even years; they may not see the sun nor touch the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth; many foods are for-bidden them, and special costumes are prescribed for them, as for mourners . The expectant See also:

• MOTHER

mother is taboo for months before the birth of her child, and her disabilities are not removed for a long period after delivery . Women may not look upon the performance of rites of initiation nor of See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies; they may not eat new crops in New See also:

• CALEDONIA

Caledonia till long after the men have partaken of them; they may often not approach the men's See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

club-See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house .

Both parents, but especially the mother, are subjected to restrictions, having for their object the preservation of the health of the unborn or newly born child . Women are often forbidden to eat with their husbands; nor may they See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share his labours, especially at sea . The relations of the sexes are regulated by complicated rules, but they are not necessarily taboos . In the first place, laws of exogamy and similar regulations limit the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of choice; even where no obstacle on this See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side is present the intercourse of the sexes is often, especially at first, hedged round with numberless interdictions and rites . Connected with the rules of exogamy are the customs of avoidance, which prescribe that a man may not speak to nor even look at his mother-in-law, sometimes also his See also:

• FATHER

father-in-law, daughter, and other relatives; in like manner the wife must avoid the husband's relatives, and the See also:

• BROTHER

brother may often not speak to the See also:

• SISTER

sister . 15 . Other Taboos.—Taboos of various kinds are imposed on strangers, on sorcerers, and on children . Certain places are taboo; taboos protect the crops and ensure that landmarks are not removed . In fact the number of taboos is so great that it is impossible to mention them in detail . 16 . See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

Distribution.—Although taboo is a Polynesian word the institution is far from being restricted to See also:

• OCEANIA

Oceania . Similar prohibitions, though they seldom reached the Polynesian level, are found in America, Africa, and especially Madagascar, North and Central See also:

• ASIA

Asia, and among the non-See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan tribes of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India .

But taboo and its survivals are not confined to the uncivilized . 17 . Developments of Taboo.—It would be remarkable if a feature which has taken such deep See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root in the custom and belief of savage and barbarous peoples did not leave a marked impress on the faiths of higher cultures . Just as the gods have become moral pari passu with mankind, so the ceremonially clean has become the physically and morally clean, the pure has become the moral, and taboo has changed its name to holiness . At a certain point in evolution the notion of unclean, sometimes See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive and implying the See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of dangerous properties, sometimes negative and connoting no more than mere See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of holiness, which is in this case indistinguishable from See also:

• MINA, FRANCISCO ESPOZ Y (1781-1836)

mina, becomes a prominent element in See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion . At a later stage and as a result of the greater See also:

• WEIGHT

weight attached to morality, the positive uncleanness falls into the background, leaving only the negatively unclean, the unholy, which is not in itself death-dealing, but may, like its savage analogue, See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call down on the community, innocent and guilty alike, the wrathof higher See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers, the remedy being, not so much the punishment of the offender, still less mere physical purification, but their moralized analogues, See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

prayer, See also:

• FASTING (from " fast," derived from old Teutonic fastejan; synonyms being the Gr. vnorebety, late Lat. jejunare)

fasting and repentance . 18 . Among the Greeks.—The general word for taboo among the Greeks in &yos, which may See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear the sense of " sacredness " or " pollution "; derivatives occur in the same meanings . Usually, however, the notions of sacred and unclean are distinguished by the use of different terms from this root, ayvbs for sacred, ivayi7s for unclean or accursed . The rules of the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek &yveta (See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season of taboo) do not differ markedly from those of the Polynesian . Corresponding to the war-taboo of Oceania we find in See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer that the See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army (Od. See also:

• XXIV

xxiv . 81) and the See also:

• SENTINEL, or SENTRY

sentinel (Il. x .

56, xxiv . 681) are sacred; and we learn from See also:

• PLATO

Plato that warriors never eat See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish, from which indeed there was a general custom of abstinence except under the pressure of See also:

• FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

famine . The epithets iepos, Nos, &c., which may point to beliefs similar to those of Polynesia, are applied to chiefs and kings, and further to the swineherd, thus suggesting that the See also:

• PIG
• PIG (a word of obscure origin, connected with the Low Ger. and Dut. word of the same meaning, bigge)

pig, which See also:

• BORE

bore a mixed reputation for holiness and uncleanness (ceremonial) both in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt and west Asia, was similarly regarded in See also:

• GREECE

Greece . 19 . Among the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans.—The term for taboo is sacer; any one who removed a landmark became sacer and was outlawed, any See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen having the right to kill him . Consecratio capitis et bonorum was the term for devotion to the nether gods . The flamen dialis and his wife were hedged in by a perfect network of ritual prohibitions; he might not ride upon nor even touch a See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse; his eyes might not fall on an army under arms; he might not walk under a See also:

• VINE

vine; he might not name a See also:

• GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. gat, Goth. gaits, Mod. Ger. Geiss, cognate with Lat. haedus, a kid)

goat, raw See also:

• MEAT

meat, beans, See also:

• IVY (A.S. ifig, Ger. Epheu, perhaps connected with apium, anent)

ivy, a dog, and so on; his See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair might be cut only by a See also:

• FREEMAN
• FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1823-1892)

freeman; he might not touch a See also:

• CORPSE (Lat. corpus, the body)

corpse . The flaminica might not See also:

• COMB (a word common in various forms to Teut. languages, cf. Ger. Kamm, the Indo-Europ. origin of which is seen in yoµros, a peg or pin, and Sanskrit, gambhas, a tooth)

comb her hair at certain festivals; she was taboo (feriata) after See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing See also:

• THUNDER

thunder till she had purified herself by a sacrifice . The See also:

• ROMAN

Roman feriae were periods of taboo . 20 . Among the See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews.—The See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew for holy is m7'i' which means " separated, cut off," while its correlative $; means " open for common use "; another sense of sacer is conveyed by ^la " accursed, devoted to destruction." Holiness is transmissible by contact (Ezek. xliv . 19, xlvi .

2o; Ex. See also:

• XXIX

xxix . 37; Lev. vi . 27) . It is distinct from purity in the moral sense; the names of the hieroduli ^'q'7p and hierodula nielp are connected with ' the word rip . Taboo among the Jews are: (1) things connected with See also:

• JEHOVAH (YAHWEH2)

Jehovah, his name is holy and terrible; his See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm is holy; holy places are taboo (see SANCTUARY); the See also:

• ARK (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Arche, adapted from the Lat. area, chest, cf. arcere, to shut up, enclose)„ a chest, basket or box. The Hebrew word tebah, translated in the' A.V. by " ark," is used in the Old Testament (1)

ark is actively dangerous, and Uzzah, no less than the men of Bethshemesh, pays the penalty for too nearly approaching it; (2) the See also:

• NAZARITE

Nazarite might not partake of certain foods, nor touch a dead See also:

• BODY

body nor shave his head, which was specially sacred; (3) in fact any one who touched a dead body was unclean and could communicate his uncleanness to others; (4) the birth of a child made the mother taboo; she was required to purify herself; (5) leprosy, menstruation, and sexual functions generally occasioned longer or shorter periods of uncleanness; and warriors, who were taboo on a See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign, were required to observe continence; (6) certain foods were taboo, and the uncleanness might be communicated to an earthen See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel, which, under certain circumstances, would be broken, like a pot in Polynesia; (7) the use of See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron was forbidden in the construction of the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple; (8) a field sown with different kinds of herbs " becomes holy "; and (9) bystanders are warned not to approach a See also:

• HEATHEN

heathen rite, lest they be " sanctified "; (so) to the Polynesian interdicts, often termed taboos, corresponded certain periods of time, such as the See also:

• SABBATH

Sabbath and the See also:

• JUBILEE (or JUBILE), YEAR OF

Jubilee See also:

• YEAR

year, but these are not connected with taboo proper . do., Samoa, p . 185 sq.; Old New Zealand, by a Pakeha See also:

• MAORI

Maori, vii.–xii.; See also:

• COOK
• COOK, ALBERT STANBURROUGH (1853– )
• COOK, EDWARD DUTTON (1829–1883)
• COOK, ELIZA (1818–1889)
• COOK, JAMES (1728-1779)
• COOK, THOMAS (1808-1892)

Cook, Voyages (1809), V . 427 sq.,_ vii . 146 sq., &e; On Melanesia see Marillier in Bibliotheque de l'Ecole See also:

• DES

des Hautes Etudes Religieuses, vii . 35–74; Codrington, The Melanesians, passim . On See also:

• MICRONESIA (from Gr. µitcpbs, small, and viiaos, island)

Micronesia see See also:

• WAITZ, GEORG (1813-1886)
• WAITZ, THEODOR (1821-1864)

Waitz-Gerland, op. cit. v., ii . 147 sq .

On the Malaya see See also:

• SKEAT, WALTER WILLIAM (1835– )

Skeat, See also:

• MALAY

Malay Magic, pp . 33-42, 57–59, 191–193, 225-228, 254, 259, z63—265, 344—351, &c . On Madagascar see v . Gennep, Tabou et totimisme; for the Jews see See also:

• HASTINGS
• HASTINGS, FRANCIS
• HASTINGS, FRANK ABNEY (1794-1828)
• HASTINGS, WARREN (1732-1818)

Hastings, See also:

• DICTIONARY

Dictionary of the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible, ii . 38, 394; iv . 825 . For the Semites see See also:

• ROBERTSON, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1816-1853)
• ROBERTSON, GEORGE CROOM (1842-1892)
• ROBERTSON, JOSEPH (1810-1866)
• ROBERTSON, THOMAS WILLIAM (1829-1871)
• ROBERTSON, WILLIAM BRUCE (182o-1886)

Robertson See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith, Religion of the Semites, passim . For a general discussion of taboo see Marillier, loc. cit., v . Gennep, do . For sexual taboos see Crawley, Mystic See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

Rose, and in Journ . Anth . Inst. xxiv .

116, 219, 430 . For taboos of commensality see Crawley in See also:

• FOLKLORE

Folklore, vi . 130 . See also See also:

• HUBERT (HUCBERTUS, HUGBERTUS), ST (d. 727)

Hubert and Mauss in Annee Sociologique, ii . 29—138 on sacrifice; and vii . Io8, on mana; See also:

• DURKHEIM

Durkheim, ib. i . 38—70 on incest and exogamy; Mauss in Revue de l'histoire des religions, See also:

• XXXV

xxxv . 49—60 on taboo and penal law; J . G . Frazer, See also:

• GOLDEN

Golden Bough, i . 297—464 on royal and priestly taboos, also iii . 1—134, 201—236, 463—467; J .

Tuchmann, articles on " La See also:

• FASCINATION (from Lat. fascinare, to bewitch, probably connected with the Or. f3ao-Kaiveev, to speak ill of, to bewitch)

Fascination " in Melusine, 1881, &c . ; J . G . Frazer, on burial rites, in Journ . Anth . Inst., xv . 64 sq . For purity and holiness in the Old Testament see Baudissin, Studien, ii . 3—142; for mana see Internationales Archiv See also:

• FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

fur Ethnographie, vii . 232 . (N . W .