TALMUD  , the See also:

• GREAT

great Rabbinical See also:

• THESAURUS (Gr. B17o-avp6s)

thesaurus which See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew up during the first four or six centuries of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian Era, and, with the Old Testament, became the " See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible " of the See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews, and the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief subject of their subsequent See also:

• LITERARY

literary activity . 1 . Contents.—The Talmud (See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew " teaching, learning ") consists of the Mishnah (Heb . " [oral] repetition, teaching "), a systematic collection of religious-legal decisions developing the See also:

• LAWS

laws of the Old Testament, and the Gemara (Aramaic " completion, decision," or perhaps also " teaching "), supplementary material, legal and otherwise.' The whole was in two great recensions, Palestinian and Babylonian . Other material related to the Mishnah is preserved in the Tosephta (See also:

• ARAM, EUGENE (17o4-17J9)

Aram . " addition ") and the Midrashim, and since all these, together with the Targziinim, represent the orthodox Rabbinical literature connecting the Old Testament with See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval and See also:

• MODERN

modern Judaism, the reader should also consult the articles JEWS (parts ii. and iii.), See also:

• MIDRASH

MIDRASH, See also:

• TARGUM

TARGUM, and for more detailed and See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical treatment the references given to the Jewish Encyclopedia . ' Mishnah stands in contrast to Miqra (" See also:

• READING

reading, scripture "); its Aram. See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent is Mallznitha, from tend, " to repeat,' whence the appellation Tannd, " teacher " (§ 3 below) . These and the terms Gemara, Talmud, &c., are more fully explained in H . L . Strack's invaluable Einleilung in den Talmud (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, '1908), pp . 2 sqq . The Mishnah is a more or less careful arrangement of the extant Oral See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

Law (see § 2) .

It forms the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the Gemara, and is divided into six Seddrim or Orders, each containing a number of MassektOth (" weavings," cf. the See also:

• ETYMOLOGY (Gr. grvµos, true, and X6yos, "account)

etymology of " See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text ") or Tractates . These are subdivided into Peragim (" sections ") or chapters, and these again into paragraphs or sentences . I . Zera`See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im (" seeds "), the first See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

Order, on See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture, is introduced by (I) Berakoth (" blessings "), on daily and other prayers and blessings . (2) Pe'ah (" corner "), deals with Lev. xix . 9 seq., See also:

• XXIII

xxiii . 22; Deut. See also:

• XXIV

xxiv . 19-22, and the rights of the poor . (3) Demai, or rather Dammai (" doubtful "), on doubtful cases See also:

• RELATING

relating to the See also:

• TITHING (for tithe, tenth; Lat. decuma)

tithing of See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit offerings . (4) Kil'ayim (" of two sorts "), on for-bidden mixtures (Lev. xix . 19; Deut. xxii . 9-II) .

(5) Shebi`ith (" seventh "), on the sabbatical See also:

• YEAR

year (Ex. xxiii . I I ; Lev. See also:

• XXV

xxv . 1-8; Deut. xv. i sqq.) . (6) Terume-th (" heave offerings "), on the laws in Num. xviii . 8 sqq., 25 seq . ; Deut. xviii . 4 . (7) Ma`asroth (" See also:

• TITHES

tithes ") or Ma`aser Ri'shon (" first tithe "), with reference to the See also:

• LEVITES

Levites, Num. xviii . 21-24 . (8) Ma'aser Sheni (" second tithe "), with reference to the tithe eaten at See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem, Deut. xiv . 22-26 . (9) Hallah (" cake "), on Num. xv .

18-21 . (to) 'Orlah (" foreskin " [of trees]), on Lev. xix . 23-25 . (II) Bikkiitrim (" first-fruits "), on Ex. xxiii . 19; Deut. See also:

• XXVI

xxvi. i sqq . The See also:

• FOURTH

fourth See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter of this See also:

• TREATISE

treatise, printed in most See also:

• EDITIONS

editions, is properly a Baraitha . II . Mo ed (" festival ") . (I) Shabbath, on the See also:

• SABBATH

Sabbath as a See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day of See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest, Ex. xx. to, xxiii . 12; Deut. v . 14, &c . (useful edition by Strack, 1890) .

(2) `Erubin (" mixtures " or amalgamations), on legitimate methods of avoiding inconvenient restrictions on the Sabbath . (3) Pesahim (" passovers "—sacrifices and meals), on Ex. xii, xiii . 6-8, xxiii . 15; Lev. xxiii . 5 sqq . ; Num. See also:

• XXVIII

xxviii. i6 sqq . ; Deut. xvi. t sqq., &c . (4) Shegalim (" shekels "), on the See also:

• POLL

poll tax (Ex. See also:

• XXX

xxx . 12 sqq . ; Neb. x . 33) . (5) Yonia (Aram .

" the day "), or Kippurim (" See also:

• ATONEMENT

atonement "), or Y. ha-k . (" the day of atonement "), on Lev. xvi., xxiii . 26-32 (useful edition by H . L . Strack, Leipzig, 1904) . (6) Sukkah or Sukkoth (" See also:

• BOOTH (connected with a Teutonic root meaning to dwell, whence also " bower ")
• BOOTH, BARTON (1681–1933)
• BOOTH, CHARLES (184o– )
• BOOTH, EDWIN [THOMAS] (1833–1893)

booth[s] "), on Lev. xxiii . 34 sqq . ; Num . See also:

• XXIX

xxix . 12 sqq.; Deut. xvi . 13-16 . (7) Besah (" See also:

• EGG (O.E. aeg, cf. Ger. Ei, Swed. aegg, and prob. Gr. u,ov, Lat. ovum)
• EGG, AUGUSTUS LEOPOLD (1816-1863)

egg," the opening word) or Yom tob (" See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good [i.e. feast] day "), See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general rules for feast-days .

(8) Rosh ha-Shanah (" New Year festival "), on the services, the See also:

• CALENDAR

calendar, and more particularly on the first of the Seventh See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

Month (cf . Num. x. to, xxviii. i t sqq., &c.) . (9) Ta'anith or Ta'aniyyolh, i.e . " fast[s]," See also:

• SPECIAL

special observances relating thereunto; in particular to public fasts appointed in See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of drought . (to) Megillah, " See also:

• ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. role, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota, wheel)
• ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846– )

roll " (of See also:

• ESTHER

Esther), the reading of it at See also:

• PURIM

Purim, &c . (II) Mc'ed Titan (" the small M," to distinguish it from the name of this order), or Mashkin (the first word), regulations for the intermediate festivals at See also:

• PASSOVER

Passover and See also:

• TABERNACLES, FEAST OF

Tabernacles . (12) Hagigah (" festival "), on the three See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal festivals, Deut. xvi . 16, the See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of pilgrims and the defilements to be avoided (transl. from Bab . Talm. by A . W . Streane, Camb., 1891) . xxx .

(4) Nazir (" Nazirite "), on Num. vi . (5) Giftin (" documents "), on See also:

• DIVORCE

divorce and separation . (6) SOtah (" the faithless woman "), on Num. v . 11-31 . (7) Qiddushin (" sanctifications " of See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage), on the contraction of legal marriage . IV . Nezigin (" See also:

• DAMAGES (through O. Fr. damage, mod. Fr. dommage, from Lat. damnum, loss)

damages "), also known as Yeshu`oth (" deeds of help ") . (I) Baba See also:

• GAMMA

gamma (Aram . " the first See also:

• GATE

gate "), on injuries and See also:

• COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

compensation; See also:

• CIVIL

civil law . (2) B . Mesi a (Aram . " the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle gate "), on sales, leases, lost See also:

• PROPERTY

property .

(3) B . See also:

• BATHS

Baths (Aram . " the last gate "), on real See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate, See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession, &c . (4) Sanhedrin (avvESpwv), on See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure and criminal law . (5) Makkoth, "blows," on the number to be inflicted (Deut. xxv . 1-3) and for what offence, &c . (6) Shebis`oth (" oaths "), on Lev. v . 4 sqq . (7) 'Eduyyolh, " testimonies," viz. of later teachers regarding their predecessors, on the See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of See also:

• HILLEL

Hillel and See also:

• SHAMMAI

Shammai, 'Aqiba, &c., important for the problem of the literary growth of the Mishnah . (8) ',Ibodah 'See also:

• ZARA (Serbo-Croatian Zadar)

Zara (" idolatrous See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship "), regulations in reference to See also:

• HEATHEN

heathen See also:

• IDOLATRY

idolatry (useful edition with Germ. transl. by Strack, 1909; and including that of the Gemara by F . C . See also:

• EWALD, GEORG HEINRICH AUGUST VON (1803-1875)
• EWALD, JOHANNES (1743-1781)

Ewald, See also:

• NUREMBERG (Ger. Nurnberg)

Nuremberg, 1856) .

(9) 'AbOth or Pirqe A . (" sayings of the fathers "), a famous collection of See also:

• MAXIMS, LEGAL

maxims; the See also:

• SIXTH

sixth chapter on " the See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the law " does not properly,belong to the Mishnah (ed. with transl. by C . See also:

• TAYLOR
• TAYLOR, ANN (1782-1866)
• TAYLOR, BAYARD (1825–1878)
• TAYLOR, BROOK (1685–1731)
• TAYLOR, ISAAC (1787-1865)
• TAYLOR, ISAAC (1829-1901)
• TAYLOR, JEREMY (1613-1667)
• TAYLOR, JOHN (158o-1653)
• TAYLOR, JOHN (1704-1766)
• TAYLOR, JOSEPH (c. 1586-c. 1653)
• TAYLOR, MICHAEL ANGELO (1757–1834)
• TAYLOR, NATHANIEL WILLIAM (1786-1858)
• TAYLOR, PHILIP MEADOWS (1808–1876)
• TAYLOR, ROWLAND (d. 1555)
• TAYLOR, SIR HENRY (1800-1886)
• TAYLOR, THOMAS (1758-1835)
• TAYLOR, TOM (1817-1880)
• TAYLOR, WILLIAM (1765-1836)
• TAYLOR, ZACHARY (1784-1850)

Taylor, Camb . 1897, and in See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German by H . L . Strack, 1901) . (lo) Horayolh (" decisions "), on judicial and other errors (Lev. iv. i sqq.) . V . Q6dd-shim (" See also:

• HOLY

holy things ") . (I) Zebahim (" sacrifices "), or shehi(See also:

• ATH, or AATII

ath gbdashim (" the slaughter of holy things "), on the sacrificial laws, &c . (2) Menahoth (" See also:

• MEAT

meat-offerings "), on Lev. ii . 5, II-13, vi .

7-16, xiv . 10-20, &c . (3) Hullin or Shehilath H . (" [the slaughter of] See also:

• COMMON

common things "), on non-sacrificial meat: (a) Bekoroth (" first-See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born "), on firstlings (Ex. xiii . Iz seq.; Lev. See also:

• XXVII

xxvii . 26 seq . ; Num. viii . 16-18, xviii . I5-17;' Deut. xv . 19 sqq.) . (5) 'Arakin (" valuations " for See also:

• RANSOM (from Lat. redemptio, through Fr. rancon)

ransom, &c.), on Lev. xxv . 15-28, 29 sqq., xxvii .

2 sqq., 28 seq . (6) Temurah (" See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange of dedicated animals), cf . Lev. xxvii. to, 33 . (7) See also:

• KER, JOHN (1673-1726)

Ker-ithoth (" cutting off "), on See also:

• EXCOMMUNICATION (Lat. ex, out of, away from; communis, common)

excommunication, &c . (8) Me`ilah (" trespass "), on Lev. v . 15 sqq.; Num. v . 6-8 . (9) Tamid, on the " continual or perpetual (daily' burnt offering)," Ex. xxix . 38—42; Num. xxviii . 2–8 . (1o) Middoth (" See also:

• MEASURES

measures "), an important tractate on the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple (measurements, See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

gates, halls, &c.) . (II) Qinnim (" nests "), on sacrifices of doves by the poor (cf .

Lev. i . 14–17, v . I sqq., xii . 8) . VI . Tohoroth or Teh., " purifications," a See also:

• EUPHEMISM (from Gr. eiiidirl sos, having a sound of good omen; et)

euphemism for things which are ritually or ceremonially " unclean." (1) Kelim (" vessels "), their uncleanness (cf . Lev. xi . 32 sqq . ; Num. xix . 14 sqq., xxxi . 20 sqq.) . (2) Ohaloth (" tents "), on defilement through a See also:

• CORPSE (Lat. corpus, the body)

corpse (Num. xix .

14–20), &c . (3) Nega'im (" plagues," i.e. leprosy), on Lev. seq . (4) See also:

• FARAH

Farah (the [red] " See also:

• HEIFER

heifer "), on Num. xix . (5) Teharoth (euphemism for impurities), on See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor defilements . (6) Migwa-'oth (See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual baths), bathing for the defiled (cf . Lev. xiv . 8, xv . 5 sqq.; Num. xxxi . 23; also See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

Mark vii . 4) . (7) Niddah (See also:

• FEMALE

female " impurity "), on Lev. xv . 19–33 .

(8) Makshirin (" predisposing "), or Mashgin (" liquids "), on defilement caused by wet unclean things (cf . Lev. xi . 34, 37 seq.) . (9) Zabim (" those with a See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge "), on Lev. xv . (to) Tebul Yom (" immersed for [or on] the day "), on those who have taken a ritual See also:

• BATH
• BATH, THOMAS THYNNE
• BATH, WILLIAM

bath and must wait until sunset before becoming ritually pure (see Lev. xv . 5, xxii . 6 seq ; Num. xix . 19) . (II) Yaddyim, " hands, ' their See also:

• PURIFICATION

purification (cf . Matt. xv . 2, 20; Mark vii . 2–4, &c.) .

(12) Ugrin (' stems "), on the relation between fruit and the stems and stalks as regards defilement, &c . To Order IV. the Babylonian recension of the Talmud adds seven See also:

• TREATISES

treatises, which are of later origin and are regarded as more or less extra-canonical . (I) Aboth de See also:

• RABBI

Rabbi Nathan, an expansion of IV . 9, attributed to a second-See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century Rabbi, but See also:

• POST

post-Talmudic (ed . S . Schechter, 1887) . (2) Sopherim (" See also:

• SCRIBES

scribes "), on the See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing of the scrolls of the See also:

• PENTATEUCH

Pentateuch, grammatical (Massoretic) rules, and (a later addition) on the See also:

• LITURGY (Low Lat. liturgia; Gr. X€Zros, public, and Epyov, work; )Aetrovpy6s, a public servant)

liturgy (ed . J . See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller, Leipzig, 1878) . (3) See also:

• EBEL, HERMANN WILHELM (1820–1875)
• EBEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1764–1830)

Ebel Rabbathi (" great weeping "), or, euphemistically, Semahoth C' joys "), on See also:

• MOURNING (from the verb " to mourn," to be sorrowful, 0. Eng. murnan; cf. O.H.G. mornen, Goth. maurnan, to be anxious, O.N. morna, to pine away; by some referred to root seen in Gr. jdptpva, sorrow, by others to root mer-, to die)

mourning customsand rules . (4) Kallah (" betrothed, See also:

• BRIDE (a common Teutonic word, e.g..Goth. bruths, O. Eng. bryd, O. H. Ger. prs2t, Mod. Ger. Bract, Dut. bruid, possibly derived from the root bru-, cook, brew; from the med. latinized form bruta, in the sense of daughter-in-law, is derived the Fr. bru)

bride "), on chastity in marriage, &c . Derek Ere .

(5) Rabbah, and (6) See also:

• ZULA

Zula, a " large " and a " small " treatise on various rules of " conduct " and social See also:

• LIFE

life . (7) Pereq ha-Shalom, a " chapter on See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace " (peacefulness) . In addition to these seven, other small Talmudic treatises are also reckoned (edited by R . Kirchheim, See also:

• FRANKFORT

Frankfort-on-See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

Main, 185o) . These See also:

• DEAL

deal with (I) the writing of the rolls of the Law; (2) Mezuzah (Dent. vi . 9, xi . 20); (3) Tephillin (prayers, phylacteries) ; (4) the fringes (Num. xv . 38) ; (5) slaves; (6) the See also:

• SAMARITANS

Samaritans (see J . A . See also:

• MONTGOMERY
• MONTGOMERY ( Tre' Faldwyn)
• MONTGOMERY, GABRIEL, SEIGNEUR DE LORGES, COMTE DE (c. 1530-1574)
• MONTGOMERY, JAMES (1771-1854)
• MONTGOMERY, ROBERT (1807-1855)

Montgomery, The Samaritans, pp . 196 sqq.); and (7) proselytes . The Mishnah itself contains 63 tractates, or, since IV .

1–3 originally formed one (called Nezigin) and IV . 4, 5 were See also:

• UNITED

united, 6o . The number is also given as 70 (cf . 2 Esd. xiv . 44–46), perhaps by including the seven smaller treatises appended to IV . There are 523 chapters (or 525, see I . If, IV . 9) . 2 . The Origin of the Mishnah.—A careful distinction was See also:

• DRAWN

drawn between the Written Law, the See also:

• MOSAIC (corresponding to Lat. opus musivum, from Gr. µovoeiov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the word is only found in the sense of mosaic in late Greek, which generally uses k oXI yrlµa)

Mosaic Torah, and the rest of the Scriptures (z?+?;m mia), and the Oral Law, or Torah by Mouth (n;'n ntra) . The origin of the latter, which has become codified in the Mishnah, has often been discussed . It was supposed that it had been handed down by See also:

• EZRA (from a Hebrew word meaning " help ")
• EZRA, FOURTH BOOK (or APOCALYPSE) OF
• EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF [I Esdras]

Ezra; that it was indebted to See also:

• JOSHUA, BOOK OF

Joshua, See also:

• DAVID
• DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably beloved 1)
• DAVID, FELICIEN (1810—1876)
• DAVID, GERARD [GHEERAERT DAVIT], (?=1523)
• DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789–1856)
• DAVID, ST (Dewi, Sant)

David or See also:

• SOLOMON, ODES OF
• SOLOMON, PSALMS OF

Solomon; that it was as old as See also:

• MOSES (Gr. Mwvo c, Mcoo-i3s)
• MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF

Moses, to whom it had been communicated orally or in writing, See also:

• COMPLETE

complete or in its essence .

The traditional view is well illustrated in the words ascribed to R . See also:

• SIMEON
• SIMEON (or SYMEON) OF DURHAM (d. after 1129)
• SIMEON, JOSEPH JEROME, COMTE (1749–1842)

Simeon Lakish, 3rd century A.D.:1 " What is that which is written, ' I will give thee the tables of See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone, and the Law and the Commandment, which I have written, that See also:

• THOU, JACQUES AUGUSTE DE [THUANUS] (1553-1617)
• THOU, NOM

thou mayest See also:

• TEACH [THATCH OR THACH], EDWARD (d. 1718)

teach them (Ex. xxiv . 12) ' ? ` Tables,' these are the Ten Words (the See also:

• DECALOGUE (in patristic Gr. 7] SercaXoyos, sc. (3i(3)tos or vopoGevia)

Decalogue) ; the ` Law ' is the Scripture; ` and the commandment,' that is the Mishnah: ' which I have written,' these are the Prophets and Writings (i.e . The Hagiographa), ` to teach them,' that is the Gemara—thus instructing us that all these were given to Moses from See also:

• SINAI

Sinai." Literary and See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism places the discussion on another basis when it treats the Mosaic Torah in its See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form as a post-exilic compilation (about 5th century a.c.) from See also:

• SOURCES

sources differing in date, origin and See also:

• HISTORY

history . There is no a priori See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason why other legal enactments should not have been current when the compilation was first made: the Pentateuchal legislation is incomplete, and covers only a small See also:

• PART

part of the affairs of life in which legal decisions ' For the See also:

• SAKE

sake of convenience See also:

• BEN (from Old Eng. bennan, within)

Ben (" son ") and Rabbi are, as usual, abbreviated to b. and R . For the See also:

• QUOTATION

quotation which follows, see Oesterley and See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

Box, The See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Religion and Worship of the See also:

• SYNAGOGUE (avvaywyii)
• SYNAGOGUE, UNITED

Synagogue (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1907) p . 51; and, on the subject, S . Schechter, Studies in Judaism (London, 1896), ch. vii.—" the history of Jewish tradition "; E . See also:

• WEBER, CARL MARIA FRIEDRICH ERNEST VON (1786–1826)
• WEBER, WILHELM EDUARD (1804-1891)

Weber, Judische Theologie (Leipzig, 1897), pp . 91 seq. and 130 sqq . ; Strack, op. cit., p .

8 seq.; W . Bousset, Relig. d . Judentums (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1906), pp . 176 sqq., and See also:

• JEW, THE WANDERING

Jew . Ency., iv . 423 sqq . ; see also G . B . See also:

• GRAY
• GRAY (or GREY), WALTER DE (d. 1255)
• GRAY, ASA (1810-1888)
• GRAY, DAVID (1838-1861)
• GRAY, ELISHA (1835-1901)
• GRAY, HENRY PETERS (1819-18/7)
• GRAY, HORACE (1828–1902)
• GRAY, JOHN DE (d. 1214)
• GRAY, JOHN EDWARD (1800–1875)
• GRAY, PATRICK GRAY, 6TH BARON (d. 1612)
• GRAY, ROBERT (1809-1872)
• GRAY, SIR THOMAS (d. c. 1369)
• GRAY, THOMAS (1716-1771)

Gray's See also:

• ART

art . " Law Literature " in the Ency . Bib.might be needed . There must have been a large See also:

• BODY

body of usage to which Jewish society subscribed; customary usage is one of the most binding of laws even among modern See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental communities where laws in writing are unknown, and one of the most interesting features is the persistence in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East of closely-related forms and principles of See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom from the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest times to the present day .

Laws must be adjusted from time to time to meet changing needs, and new necessities naturally arose in the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period for which the older codes and usages made no See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision . Much in the same way as Roman law was derived from the Twelve Tables, the Jewish written laws were used as the authority for subsequent modifications, and the continuity of the religious-legal See also:

• SYSTEM

system was secured by a skilful treatment of old precedents ? In the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article MIDRASH it will be seen that new teaching could justify itself by a re-See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation of the old writings, and that the traditions of former authoritative figures could become the framework of a teaching considerably later than their See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age . It is probable that this See also:

• PROCESS

process was largely an unconscious one; and even if conscious, the See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy of the conventional " legal fiction " and the usual anxiety to avoid the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of novelty is enough to show that it is not to be condemned . By the help of a tradition —a " haggadic " or " halakic " Midrash (q.v . § 1)—contemporary custom or ideals could appear to have See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient precedents, or by means of an exegetical process they could be directly connected with old See also:

• MODELS

models . In the Old Testament many laws in the Mosaic legislation are certainly post-Mosaic and the value of not a few narratives lies, not in their historical or See also:

• BIOGRAPHICAL

biographical See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information, but in their treatment of law, ritual, custom, belief, &c . Later developments are exemplified in the pseud-epigraphical literature, notably in the See also:

• BOOK

Book of See also:

• JUBILEES, BOOK OF

Jubilees, and when we reach the Mishnah and Talmud, we have only the first of a new See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of stages which, it may be said, culminate in the 16th-century Shulhan `Aruk, the great compendium of the then existing written and oral law . Thus, the problem of the origin or antiquity of the unwritten Oral Law, a living and fluid thing, lies outside the See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope of criticism; of greater utility is the study of the particular forms the laws have taken in the written sources which from time to time embody the ever-changing See also:

• LEGACY (Lat. legatum)

legacy of the past . The course of development between the recognition of the supremacy of the Pentateuch and the actual writing down of the Mishnah and Gemara can be traced only in broad lines . It is known that a great See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of oral tradition was current, and there are a number of See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early references to written collections, especially of haggadah . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, certain references indicate that there was a strong opposition to writing down the Oral Law .

It is possible, therefore, that written See also:

• WORKS

works were in circulation among the learned, and that these contained varying interpretations which were likely to injure efforts to maintain a See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform Judaism . See also:

• PHILO
• PHILO, HERENNIUS

Philo speaks of ,uvpta o'eypa.ba WBi7 Kol voµcµa (ed . Mangey, ii . 629), and the oral See also:

• ESOTERIC

esoteric traditions of the See also:

• PHARISEES

Pharisees are attested by See also:

• JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS (c. 37-C. 95?)

Josephus (xiii . It), 6, cf . 16, 2); cf. in the New Testament, Matt. xv . 1–9, Mark vii . 8, &c.; and the bevrepc ens " repetitions " (cf. the See also:

• TERM

term Mishnah) of the Christian Fathers . For the written collections, see Strack, op. cit., pp. io sqq.; J . Theodor, Jew . Ency., viii . 552; J .

Z . Lauterbach, ib., p . 614; W . Bacher, ib., xii . 19; S . Schechter, See also:

• HASTINGS
• HASTINGS, FRANCIS
• HASTINGS, FRANK ABNEY (1794-1828)
• HASTINGS, WARREN (1732-1818)

Hastings' See also:

• DIET

Diet . Bible, v . 62; and art . MIDRASH, § 5, in this See also:

• WORK

work . The theory of an esoteric tradition is distinctly represented in 2 Esdras xiv., where Moses receives words which were not to be published, and Ezra re-writes seventy books which were to be delivered to the See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise men of his See also:

• PEOPLE

people . Also the Book of Jubilees knows of See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret written traditions containing regulations regarding sacrifices, &c., and See also:

• JACOB
• JACOB, JOHN (1812-1858)

Jacob hands over " all his books and the books of his fathers to See also:

• LEVI, HERMANN (1839-1900)
• LEVI, LEONE (1821-1888)

Levi his son that he might preserve them and renew them for his See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children (i.e. the priestly See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste) unto this day " (xlv . 16) .

3 . Growth of the Mishnah and Gemara.—According to the traditional view the See also:

• CANON

canon of the Old Testament closed with the work of Ezra . He was followed by the Sopherim, " scribes " (or the Men of the great Synagogue), to the Maccabaean age, and these again by the " Pairs " (zugoth, Gr . 'uyov), the reputed heads of the Sanhedrin, down to the Herodian age (150–30 B.C.) . The last culminate in Hillel (q.v.) and Shammai, the founders of two great See also:

• RIVAL

rival schools, and to this famous pair the work 2 See W . R . See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith, Old Test, in the Jewish See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church, p . 51 seq., I6o . of See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting hdldkoth (" legal decisions ") has been ascribed . The ensuing period of the Tannd'im, " teachers " (about A.D . 10-220), is that of the growth of the Mishnah.' Among the best known representatives of the schools are Rabban (a See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title given to Hillel's descendants) See also:

• GAMALIEL (Se'So?)

Gamaliel, the Phil-Hellene and teacher of the apostle See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul (Acts xxii . 3) and his son Simeon (Josephus, Life, § 38 seq., See also:

• WARS

Wars, iv .

3, 9), and Rabban Jol}anan b . Zakkai, founder of the seat of learning at See also:

• JAMNIA ('Ia,uvia or '1a /11161a)

Jamnia (Jabneh) . A little later (about 90-130 A.D.) are the famous Gamaliel II., Eliezer b . Hyrqanos (at Lydda), and See also:

• ISHMAEL (a Hebrew name meaning " God hears ")

Ishmael b . See also:

• ELISHA (a Hebrew name meaning " God is deliverance ")

Elisha, the last of whom founded the school at Usha and is renowned for his development of the rules of exegesis framed by Hillel . With Rabbi Aqiba (q.v.) and the synods of Jamnia (about 90 and 118 A.D.) a definite See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch in Judaism begins . At Jamnia, under the See also:

• PRESIDENCY

presidency of Gamaliel II. and Eleazar b . See also:

• AZARIAH

Azariah, a collection of traditional halakoth was formed in the tractate 'Eduyyoth (larger than and not to be identified with IV., 7 above) . Here, too, was discussed the canonicity of the See also:

• SONG

Song of Songs and of See also:

• ECCLESIASTES (Heb. n5np, Kohelet, "Koheleth "; Sept. EKKarlveamrils; Jerome concionator)

Ecclesiastes, and it is probable that here Aqiba and his colleagues fixed the See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official text of the canonical books . Aqiba had an important See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in the early development of the Mishnah (Strack, pp . 19, 89); and, in the collecting of material, he was followed notably by the school of Ishmael (about 13o-16o A.D.), which has See also:

• LEFT

left its mark upon the early halakic Midrashim (see MIoRASu, § 5, 1-3) . The more interesting names include R .

See also:

• MEIR

Meir, a well-known haggadist, R . Simeon b . Yohai, R . Jose b . IJalaphta and R . Jehudah b . 'El'ai . But, as collections of decisions were made by prominent teachers from time to time, confusion was caused by their See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences as regards both contents and teaching (Sotah, 22a; Shabb . 138b) . Consequently, towards the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the second century a thoroughly comprehensive effort was made to reduce the halakoth to order . See also:

• JUDAH

Judah, See also:

• GRANDSON (Ger. Grandsee)

grandson of Gamaliel II., known as the See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince or See also:

• PATRIARCH (M.E. and O. Fr. patriarche, Lat. patriarcha, Gr. aarpuipxtis, from srarptu., clan, and apxil, rule)

Patriarch (ndsi'), as Rabbenu (" our teacher "), or simply as " Rabbi " See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par excellence, was the editor . He gathered together the material, using Meir's collection as a basis, and although he did not write the Mishnah as it now is, he brought it into essentially its present shape .

His methods were not See also:

• FREE

free from arbitrariness; he would attribute to " the wise " the See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion of a single authority which he regarded as correct; he would ignore conflicting opinions or those of scholars which they themselves had afterwards retracted, and he did not See also:

• SCRUPLE

scruple to cite his own decisions .2 The period of the 'AAmord'im, " speakers, interpreters," (about 220—500 A.D.), witnessed the growth of the Gemara, when the now " canonical " Mishnah formed the basis for further amplification and for the collecting of old and new material which See also:

• BORE

bore upon it . In See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine learning flourished at Caesarea, Sepphoris, See also:

• TIBERIAS

Tiberias and Usha; Babylonia had famous schools at Nehardea (from the 2nd century A.D.), Sura, Pumbeditha and elsewhere.' Of their teachers (who were called Rabbi and See also:

• RAB

Rab respectively) several hundreds are known . R . IJiyya was redactor of the Siphra on See also:

• LEVITICUS

Leviticus (MIDRASH, § 5, 2); to him and to R . Hoshaiah the compilation of the Tosephtd is also ascribed . Abba Arika or Rab, the See also:

• NEPHEW

nephew of the first mentioned, founded the school of Sura (219 A.D.) . Rab and Shemuel (See also:

• SAMUEL

Samuel) " the astronomer " (died 254 A.D.) were pupils of " Rabbi " (i.e . Judah, above), and were famed for their know-ledge of law; so numerous were their points of difference that the Talmud will emphasize certain decisions by the statement that the two were agreed . The Gemara is much indebted to this pair and to Johanan b . Nappaha (199-279) . The latter, founder of the great school of Tiberias, has indeed been On the various teachers, especially the Haggadists, see W . Bacher, Agada der See also:

• BABYLON (mod. Hillah)

Babylon .

Amoraer (See also:

• STRASSBURG, or STRASBURG (French Strasbourg)

Strassburg, 1879), A. d . Tannaiten (1884, new edition begun in 1903), A. d . See also:

• PAL, KRISTO DAS (1839–1884)

Pal . Amorder (1892) . 2 See the criticisms in Jew . Ency., viii . 612, and J . Bassfreund, Monatsschrift f. d . Gesch. u . Wissens. d . Judentums, 1907, pp . 427 sqq .

On the earlier stages, see Jew . Ency., viii . 6io, and Hastings' Diet . Bible, v . 61, See also:

• COL
• COL (Fr. for " neck," Lat. collum)

col . 2, with the references . On these schools, see art . JEws, § 42 seq.; and Jew . Ency., i . 145-148.venerated, on the authority of See also:

• MAIMONIDES

Maimonides, as the editor of the Palestinian Talmud; but the presence of later material and of later names, e.g . Mani b . Jona and Jose b .

Abin (Abun), refute this view . The Babylonian Rabbah b . Nahmani (d. c . 330) had a dialectical ability which won him the title " uprooter of moun tains." His controversies with R . See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph b . IJiyya (known for his learning as " Sinai "), and those between their disciples See also:

• ABA

Aba.yi and Raba are responsible for many of the See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute discussions in the Babylonian Gemara . Meanwhile the persecutions of See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine and See also:

• CONSTANTIUS, FLAVIUS VALERIUS

Constantius brought about the decay of the Palestinian schools, and, probably in the 5th century, their recension of the Talmud was essentially complete . In Babylonia, however, learning still flourished, and with Rab Ashi (352-427) the arranging of the present framework of the Gemara may have been taken in hand . Under See also:

• RABBA

Rabba Tosepha'a (died 470) and Rabina, i.e . Rab Abina (died 499), heads of the See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

academy of Sura, the Babylonian recension became practically complete . Finally, the Sabora'e, " explainers, opiners " (about 500-540), made some additions of their own in the way of explanations and new decisions . They may be looked upon as the last editors of the now unwieldy thesaurus; less probable is the view, often maintained since See also:

• RASHI (1040•-1105)

Rashi (11th century), that it was first written down in their age.' 4 .

The Two Talmuds.—The Palestinian recension of the Mishnah and Gemara is called " the Talmud of the See also:

• LAND

Land of See also:

• ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel," or " T. of the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West "; a popular but misleading name is " the Jerusalem Talmud." It is an extremely uneven compilation . " What was reduced to writing does not give us a work carried out after a preconcerted See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan, but rather represents a series of jottings answering to the needs of the various individual writers, and largely intended to strengthen the memory " (Schechter) . See also:

• POLITICAL

Political troubles and the unhappy See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the Jews probably furnish the explanation; hence also the abundance of Palestinian haggadic literature in the Midrashim, whose " words of blessing and See also:

• CONSOLATION (Fr. consolation, Lat. consolatio, from consolari, to assuage, comfort, console)

consolation " appealed more to their feelings than did the legal writings . The Pal . Talmud did not attain the See also:

• EMINENCE (Lat. eminentia)

eminence of the See also:

• SISTER

sister recension, and survives in a very incomplete form, although it was perhaps once See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller . It now extends only to Orders with the omission of IV . 7 and 9, and with the addition of part of VI . 7.5 The Babylonian Talmud (or Tal . Babli) contains the Gemara to 362 tractates) but the material is relatively very full, and it is about three times as large as the Pal., although the Gemara there extends to 39 tractates . In the latter the Gemara follows each See also:

• PARAGRAPH

paragraph of the Mishnah; in the former, references are usually made to the leaves (the two pages of which are called a and b), the enumeration of the editio princeps being retained in subsequent editions . The Mishnah is written in a See also:

• LATE

late literary form of Hebrew; but the Gemara is in Aramaic (except the Baraithas), that of the Bab . T. being an Eastern Aram. See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect (akin to Mandaitic), that of the Pal .

T. being Western Aram . (akin to Biblical Aram. and the Targums) . Greek was well understood in cultured Palestine; hence the latter recension uses many Greek terms which it does not explain; whereas in the Bab . T. they are much less common, and are sometimes punningly interpreted.° The Pal . Tal. is the more concise, but it is remarkable for the numerous repetitions of the same passages; these are useful for the criticism of the text, and for the See also:

• LIGHT

light they throw upon the incompleteness of the work of compilation . The Bab . Tal., on the other hand, is diffuse and freer in its See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition, and it is characterized by the exuberance of Halakah, which is usually rather subtle and far-fetched . Both Talmuds offer a good See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field for See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research (see below) . Especially interesting are the Baraithas which are preserved in the Gemara in Hebrew; they are " See also:

• EXTERNAL

external " decisions not included in the more authoritative See Strack, p . 16 seq . The view has little in its favour, although memory played a more important part then than now . For early mnemonic See also:

• AIDS

aids to the Mishnah, see Strack, p .

68, Jew . Ency.,xii . 19 . ° The Mishnah was first critically edited by W . H . See also:

• LOWE, JOHANN KARL GOTTFRIED (1796-1869)
• LOWE, SIR HUDSON (1769-1844)

Lowe (See also:

• CAM (CAO), DIOGO (fl. 1480-1486)

Cam-See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge, 1883) . ° The Greek words are treated by S . Krauss and I . See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

Low, Griech. u . See also:

• LAT

Lat . Lehnworter (Berlin, 1898-9) . For the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian elements in the Bab .

T., see Jew . Ency., vii . 313 . Mishnah, but they differ from and are sometimes older than the Mishnic material, with which they sometimes conflict (so in particular as regards the rejected decisions of the school of Shammai) . They usually begin: " our Masters taught," " it is taught," or " he taught," the verb tend (cf . Tannd'im, " teachers ") being employed (see further Jew . Ency., ii . 513 seq.) . Parallel to the Mishnah is the Tosephtd, an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent compilation associated with R . See also:

• NEHEMIAH (Heb. for " Yah[weh] comforts ")

Nehemiah (a contemporary of Meir and Simeon b . Yohai), Hiyya b . Abba and others; it is arranged according to the Mishnic orders and tractates, but lacks IV .

9 and V . 9–11 . The halakoth are fuller and sometimes older than the corresponding decisions in the Mishnah, and the treatment is generally more haggadic.l The method of making the discussions part of an interpretation of the Old Testament (halakic Midrash), as exemplified in the Tosephtd, is apparently older than the abstract and independent decisions of the Mishnah—which presuppose an acquaintance with the Pentateuchal basis—and, like the employment of narrative or historical Midrash (e.g. in the Pentateuch, See also:

• CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

Chronicles and Jubilees), was more suitable for popular exposition than for the See also:

• ACADEMIES

academies . For other halakic literature which goes back to the period of the See also:

• TANNA (Aramaic, " teacher ")

Tanna'Im, see the Mekiltd, Siphrd and Siphre, art . MIDRASH, § 5, 1–3 . The Palestinian Talmud, although used by the See also:

• QARAITES, or KARAITES

Qaraites in their controversies, See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell into neglect, and the Babylonian recension became, what it has since been, the authoritative See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide . With the Geonim, the heads of Sura and Pumbeditha (about 589–Io38), we enter upon another See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage . The " canonical " Mishnah and Gemara were now the See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of study, and the scattered Jews appealed to the central bodies of Judaism in Babylonia for information and guidance . The Geonim in their " Responses " or " Questions and Answers " supplied authoritative interpretations of the Old Testament or of the Talmud, and regulated the application of the teaching of the past to the changed conditions under which their brethren now lived . The legal, religious and other decisions formulated in the pontifical communications of one See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation usually became the venerated teaching of the next, and a new class of literature thus sprang into existence . (See See also:

• GAON (Heb. for " Excellency," plural Geonim)

GAON.) Meanwhile, as the Babylonian schools decayed, Talmudic learning was assiduously pursued outside its oriental See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home, and some Babylonian Talmudists apparently reached the West . However, the fortunes of the Talmud in a hostile