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See also:TARIFF (adapted in See also:English from the See also:French; the word comes through the See also:Spanish See also:tarifa, a See also:list or See also:schedule of prices, from the Arabic, ta'rifa, See also:information, an See also:inventory, 'arf, know-ledge) , a table or See also:list of articles on which import or export duties are levied, with the amount of the See also:duty specified, hence often used as a collective See also:term for the duties imposed, or for the See also:law or See also:code of regulations imposing such duties or varying the See also:scale of charges . The word is also used quite widely of any See also:schedule of prices or charges, and, particularly in See also:America, of the See also:freight or other charges of a railway or steamship See also:line . Resort is made to tariffs, or duties on imports, partly to secure See also:revenue, partly to affect the course of See also:industry within a See also:country . Strictly speaking, these two See also:objects are inconsistetit with each other; since a customs duty, in so far as it causes a domestic industry rather than a See also:foreign to See also:supply the See also:market, ceases to be a source of revenue . But in a See also:great number of cases the See also:imposition of a duty causes only a partial displacement of the foreign supply, and hence brings some revenue from that which remains . This circumstance strengthens the hold of the protective See also:system, especially in countries where customs duties are an important source of revenue, the See also:combination of fiscal convenience and of See also:protection to See also:home industry being a highly attractive one . Where See also:tariff duties are imposed solely for revenue, an See also:equivalent See also:excise tax is imposed within the country, so as to put the domestic producer precisely on the footing of his foreign 8 G . V. p . 83 . 8 Rosenberg and Kohler in Geiger's Judische Zeitschrift, 1870 . competitor; and tariffs so maintained are in See also:complete See also:con- that lost by the diminished import duties . The last of them, formity with the principle of See also:free See also:trade . Great See also:Britain.—Between the See also:close of the See also:Napoleonic See also:wars of 1815 and the See also:year 186o, the tariff system of Great Britain was changed from elaborate protection to practically complete free trade . An See also:attempt had indeed been made in 1786 to modify the rigidly protective legislation of the 18th See also:century . In that year See also:Pitt concluded a commercial treaty with See also:France, providing for large reductions of duties in both countries . But the treaty was swept away with the outbreak of the wars with France, and accordingly the old system was still in force in 1815 . The first important step, and in some respects the decisive step, towards modifying it was taken in 1824, under the policy of See also:Huskisson . In that year, and again in 1825, great reductions were made in the duties on raw materials, especially on See also:wool, raw See also:silk, See also:flax and See also:iron, while considerable reductions were also made in the duties on manufactured goods . The most sharply contested of the changes was in regard to silks, which had been completely prohibited, and were now admitted at a duty of 30 per cent . A considerable See also:breach was thus made in the protective system; and some further changes in the same direction were made in the next See also:decade, especially under See also:Lord Althorp in 1833 . But in the decade from 1830 to 1840 the See also:Corn See also:Laws were the See also:chief subject of contention . The great increase in See also:population since the See also:middle of the 18th century had made See also:England a corn-importing country, especially with the rapid growth of manufactures in the See also:early years of the 19th century . The first systematic Corn Laws imposing duties on See also:grain had been passed in 1773 . From 1816 onwards a See also:series of See also:measures were passed, all designed to maintain the high See also:price of grain .
The See also:Act of 1816 prohibited the importation of See also:wheat when the price was less than 8os. a See also:quarter (=$2.5o a See also:bushel)
.
In 1822 the prohibitive point was lowered to 70S
.
In 1828 the sliding scale was introduced, under which the duty went up and down as the price of grain went down and up; and it was against this See also:form of the Corn Law that the great agitation led by See also:Cobden and See also:Bright was directed after 183o
.
For a See also:long See also:time the See also:anti-Corn Law agitation seemed to have no effect, although conducted with extraordinary skill and See also:enthusiasm
.
In 1842, however, See also:Sir See also:Robert See also:Peel made the first important concession, by modifying the sliding scale, his opponent, Lord See also: The first of them, in 1842, was signalized by the introduction of the Income Tax as a means of raising revenue to replacein 186o, was largely influenced by the great commercial treaty with France . In that treaty the concessions made to France were the reduction by Great Britain of duties on wines and See also:spirits, and the admission, free of duty, of some important See also:French products, notably silk manufactures, gloves, and other products in which the French had superiority . Great Britain, instead of limiting the concessions to France, in 186o made them applicable to all the See also:world . The silk manufacture, as to which the first great changes had been made in 1824, and on whose products the duties had been kept higher in previous acts than on other manufactures, was thus compelled, notwithstanding violent opposition, to See also:face unfettered foreign competition . Two general features should be noted in regard to the tariff history of Great Britain . In the first See also:place, most of the reductions of duty on manufactured articles were of little See also:practical significance . The great See also:mass of manufactured commodities were produced in the See also:United See also:Kingdom more cheaply than in foreign countries, and would not have been imported, with duty or without, except in sporadic amounts for some See also:special qualities . The changes hence involved little real readjustment of industry . There is thus some ground for the assertion that the policy of free trade was not adopted by the United Kingdom until its See also:industries had reached the See also:stage of being See also:independent of protection . But this does not hold See also:good of some manufactures; especially not of the silk industry, and some parts of the woollen and See also:linen trades . Still less does it hold good of raw materials, many of which had been really affected by the duties, and were largely imported after their abolition . Such was the See also:case not only with some metals, such as See also:lead, See also:zinc, See also:copper, but still more strikingly with textile materials such as wool, flax, and the like, and most of all with agricultural products such as grain, See also:meat and meat products, See also:timber . In regard to all these, the abolition of protection meant a real See also:sacrifice to domestic industries . The second feature to be noted is the simplification which resulted in the administrative features of the See also:English tariff . A great number of articles had been enumerated in the earlier tariff acts, each of which was imported in very small quantity and yielded an insignificant revenue . The nature of the changes made between 1842 and 186o is indicated by the following See also:tabular statement : Duties reduced . Duties abolished . 1842-46 . . 503 390 1846 . . . 112 54 1853 . . . . .. 123 186o .
.
...
371
After 186o only See also:forty-eight articles remained subject to duty, a number which has been still further reduced, the most notable change having been free admission of See also:sugar in 1872
.
Since that date the English customs tariff has been simplicity itself
.
A very few articles (spirits, See also:beer, See also:wine, See also:tobacco, See also:tea, See also:coffee, See also:cocoa) yield practically all of the customs revenue, and, so far as these articles are produced within the country, they are subject to an excise duty, an See also:internal tax precisely equal to the import duty
.
In 1901, to aid in See also:meeting the expenses of the See also:South See also:African See also:war, a moderate revenue duty was again imposed on sugar; and in 1902 the See also:shilling duty on corn and See also:flour (abolished in 1869) was restored, but again taken off in 1903
.
In this year began the " Tariff Reform " See also:movement initiated by Mr See also:Joseph See also:
Hence the importation into France of virtually all manufactured articles from foreign countries was completely interdicted; and such was the legislation in force when See also:peace came in 1815
.
This system doubtless was not expected to last after the wars had ceased, but, as it happened, it did last until 186o
.
Successive governments in France made endeavours to break with the prohibitive system, but naturally met with strong opposition from the manufacturing interests, not prepared to meet the competition of Great Britain, whose industries had made, and were continually making, rapid strides
.
The political position of the governments of the Restoration and of See also: All these countries made reductions of duty on French products, while France admitted other products at the rates of the British treaty tariff . Thus a network of treaties was spread over See also:Europe, leading to much great freedom of trade and opening an era of freer See also:international See also:exchange . (3) This more liberal policy, however, probably never had deep See also:root in French public See also:opinion . It received a check from the Franco-See also:German War of 187o-71 . The treaty of Reaction See also:Frankfort in 1871 contained, in place of the previous d /80. detailed commercial treaty with Germany, the See also:simple a8o " most favoured nation " proviso . The See also:guarantee which each country thus gave to the other of treatment as favourable as that given elsewhere became irksome to France, sore after her defeat in the war . More important, however, in undermining the liberal system, was the change in agricultural conditions which began to set in in the decade of 1878-88 . Then the great improvements in transportation caused competition in agricultural products to be See also:felt, especially from the United States . Agricultural prices declined; agricultural depression set in . The agricultural See also:interest in France, hitherto indifferent about duties, now began to demand protectionagainst competition from beyond the See also:sea . To this See also:factor was added the revival of See also:national feeling and See also:prejudice, with growing political complications and jealousies . Hence, by See also:gradual steps, the customs policy of France has become more and more strongly restrictive . The first important step was taken in 1881, when a new general tariff was established, in which specific duties replaced the ad valorem duties chiefly applied in the treaty tariffs of r86o-66 . The new rates were supposed to be no more than equivalent to those replaced by them, but in fact were in some cases higher . New treaty tariffs, less liberal than the earlier ones, were concluded with Belgium, Switzerland and Spain; while with other countries (e.g . Great Britain) a " most favoured nation " arrangement was substituted for the previous treaty regime . These new treaty arrangements expired in 1892: even before that date, duties had been raised on grain and meats; and finally, in 1892, a new and more highly protective general tariff was established on Tarlff of 1892. the recommendation of M . See also:Maine, with high duties on agricultural products and raw materials as well as on manufactures, and with provisions for limited domestic bounties on silk, See also:hemp and flax . Nevertheless, some See also:provision was made for negotiations with foreign countries by establishing a mini-mum tariff, with rates See also:lower than those of the general or maximum tariff, the rates of this minimum tariff being applicable to countries which might make concessions to France . As a See also:rule the minimum tariff has been applied, after negotiation, and thus is the tariff in practical effect; yet its rates are still high, and, most significant of all, agricultural products are granted no reductions whatever as compared with the maxi-mum tariff, there being heavy and unrelaxed duties upon grtdn, animals, meats and the like . Germany.—The tariff history of Germany, up to the See also:foundation of the German See also:Empire, is the history of the Zollverein or German customs See also:union; and this in turn is closely connected with the tariff history of See also:Prussia . In 1818 Prussia adopted a tariff with much reduced duties, under the See also:influence of the Liberal statesmen then still powerful in the Prussian government . The excitement and opposition in Germany to the Prussian tariff led to customs legislation by the other German states, some smaller states joining Prussia, while the See also:southern states endeavoured to form independent customs unions . Finally, by gradual steps between 1831 and 1834, the complete Zollverein was formed, notwithstanding popular opposition . All the German states formed a customs union, with free trade between them, except so far as differing internal taxes in the several states made some modifications necessary . The customs revenue was divided among the several states in proportion to population . The tariff of the Zollverein was, in essentials, the Prussian tariff of 1818, and was moderate as compared with most of the See also:separate tariffs previously existing . Within the Zollverein, after 1834, there was an almost unceasing struggle between the Protectionist and Free Trade parties, Prussia supporting in the See also:main a Liberal policy, while the South German states supported a Protectionist policy . The trend of the tariff policy of the Zollverein for some time after 1834 was towards protection; partly because the specific duties of 1818 became proportionately heavier as manufactured commodities See also:fell in price, partly be-cause some actual changes in rates were made in response to the demands of the Protectionist states . In 1853 a treaty between the Zollverein and Austria brought about reciprocal reductions of duty between these two parties . After 186o a change towards a more liberal policy was brought about by the efforts of Prussia, which concluded independently a commercial treaty with France, forcing on the other members of the Zollverein the alternative of either parting See also:company Preach with Prussia or of joining her in her relations with treaty France . The second alternative was accepted, largely and See also:low because Austria did not vigorously support the South 'ail", German states, and in 1865 the Zollverein as a whole 1865. concluded a commercial treaty with France, bringing about important reductions of duty . The regime of comparatively free The Zollverein, 1834 . trade thus established lasted for about fifteen years . After the foundation of the German Empire, the duties of the Zollverein became those of Germany, and for a time the liberal regime was maintained and extended, with respect to the tariff as with respect to other matters . But in Germany, as in France, a combination of political and of economic forces led before long to a reaction towards protection . See also:Bismarck See also:broke with the National Liberals, who were the champions of free trade; at the same time the agricultural depression set in, and the agricultural interest demanded protection against See also:American and other foreign competition . The manufacturers, especially of iron, also manoeuvred for protection . The reaction came in 1879, when duties were increased on manufactured articles as Protec- well as on agricultural articles . Other advances of See also:lion See also:rein- duty were made in later years, especially on grain; stated, and thus the policy of Germany has become dis- 1879. tinctly Protectionist, though not to the same degree as in France . In 1892, however, the precise year in which France gave up her system of commercial treaties, some moderation was brought about in Germany's protective system by commercial treaties with Austria, Italy, Belgium, Switzerland, and shortly afterwards with See also:Russia . These treaties provided for reductions of duties in all directions, the most important concessions being on certain agricultural products . Thus the duty on wheat, which had been gradually raised as high as 5 marks per See also:hundred kilogrammes (roughly Is . 3d., or about 30 c. a bushel) was reduced to 3.50 marks by the treaties . The rates of these treaties were extended to a number of other countries having " most favoured nation " relations with Germany . The tariff system of Germany, however, at the beginning of the loth century, remained definitely Protectionist . In other important countries changes in policy have taken place similar to those noted in Germany and in France . The era of moderated tariffs, which began with the great treaty of 1860, lasted for about twenty years, and was followed in Italy, Austria, Belgium, Switzerland and Spain by a reversion to protection, although usually to a less high system of protection than had prevailed before 186o . 
The United Kingdom and Holland alone held consistently and unfalteringly to the principle of free trade . The factors which have brought about this reaction have been, as was already noted, partly economic, partly political: on the one See also:hand, the pressure of competition from distant countries in agricultural products, a consequence chiefly of improved transportation; on the other hand, the revival of national sentiment and prejudice . The United States.—The tariff history of the United States, like that of See also:European countries, divides itself into two great periods, before and after the year 1860 . But it is no more than an See also:accident that this year constitutes the dividing line in both cases, the change in the United States being due to the See also:Civil War, which so profoundly influenced the fiscal, economic and political history of the country in all directions . The period before 186o may again be divided into three sub-periods, the first extending from 1789 to 1816, the second from 1816 to about 1846, the third from 1846 to 1860 . (r) The Tariff Act of 1789 was the first legislative measure passed by the United States . The Protectionists have pointed 1789.. to it as showing the disposition of the first See also:Congress to 1816. adopt at once a policy of protection; the Free Traders have pointed to it similarly as showing a predilection for their policy . Each had some ground for the claim . The duties of the act of 1789 were very moderate, and, as compared with those which the United States has had under any subsequent legislation, may be described as free trade duties . On the other hand, the spirit of the act of 178q was protective . It had been the See also:design of See also:Madison, and of other See also:firm supporters of the new constitution, to adopt in 1789 a very simple measure, designed solely to secure revenue . But the pressure from the representatives of some of the states, notably See also:Pennsylvania and See also:Massachusetts, compelled him to incorporate in the Tariff Act certain specific duties borrowed from the Tariff Acts then in force in these states, which had a distinctly protective aim .
Thus the act of 1789, although the duties levied by it were moderate, yet had a protective See also:intent
.
Such in the main remained the situation until 1816, duties being indeed raised fromtime to time in See also:order to secure more revenue, but the arrange. ment and the general See also:rate of the duties not being sensibly modified
.
There was not at this time any considerable public feeling on the subject of protection, chiefly because during most of the years of this period the Eastern states, and especially New England, where manufactures might be expected to develop first, were profitably engaged in an extensive export and carrying trade
.
(2) After the close of the War of 1812, however, a new spirit and a new policy See also:developed
.
With the end of the Napoleonic wars, the opportunities for American See also:commerce be-
1816-46
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came less, while at the same time the expanding population necessarily led to diversified interests at home
.
A demand arose for two closely connected measures: protection to domestic manufactures, and internal improvements
.
Protection was demanded as a means both of aiding See also:young industries and of fostering a home market for agricultural See also:pro-ducts
.
The chief spokesman of the new movement was See also: By this time, however, the opposition to it in the South had reached a See also:pitch so intense that concessions had to be made . As a planting and slave-owning region, the South inevitably had no manufactures: it felt that its cotton was sure to find a foreign market, and would gain little from the See also:establishment of a domestic cotton manufacture within the country; and it judged, rightly, that the protective system brought it only See also:burden and no benefit . The extent of the burden was greatly exaggerated by the leaders of the South, especially in the See also:heat of See also:partisan controversy; and the subject was closely connected with the controversy as to the rights of the states, and the endeavour of South Carolina, under the influence of See also:Calhoun, to nullify the Tariff Act of 1832 . The See also:nullification movement led in 1833 to the well-known See also:compromise, by which the rates of duty as established by the Act of 1832 were to be gradually reduced, reaching in 1842 a general level of 20 per cent . The compromise served its turn in allaying political bitterness and staving off a See also:direct conflict between the United States and South Carolina . But the reductions of duty made under it were never effectively carried out . In 1842, when the final 20 per cent. rate was to have gone into effect, the Protectionists again had See also:control of Congress, and after a brief period of two months, during which this 20 per cent. rate was in force, passed the Tariff Act of 1842, which once more restored the protective system in a form not much less extreme than that of 1832 . (3) Four years later, however, in 1846, a very considerable change was secured by the South, and a new era was entered on . The Democratic party now was in control of 1846-60 legislation, and in the Tariff Act of 1846 established a system of moderate and purely ad valorem duties, in which the protected articles were subjected, as a rule, to a rate of 30 per cent., in some cases to rates of 25 and 20 per cent . The system then established has often been spoken of as a free trade system, but was in reality only a system of moderated protection . In 1857 duties were still further reduced, the rate on most protected commodities going down to 24 per cent., and remaining at this comparatively low level until the outbreak of the Civil War . The second great period in the tariff history of the United States opens with the Civil War . It is true that the first steps towards a policy of higher protection were taken just before the war began . In the session of 1860-61, immediately pre-ceding the outbreak of the conflict, the See also:Morrill Tariff Act was passed by the Republican party, then in control because the defection of Southern members of Congress had already begun . It substituted specific duties for the ad valorem duties of 1846 and 1857, and made some other changes of significance, as in the higher duties upon iron and See also:steel . Nevertheless, the advances then made were of little importance as compared with the far-reaching increases of duty during the Civil War . These formed part of the general resort to every possible fiscal See also:device . The great struggle compelled every resource to be strained to the utmost: the issue of long-time bonds, continual borrowing in very large amounts on short-time inconvertible See also:paper See also:money, an elaborate and all-pervading system of internal taxes, and, finally, heavy import duties . The internal taxes of the war were applied not only in the form of income taxes, See also:stamp taxes, See also:licence and See also:gross receipts taxes, but also as direct excise taxes on many commodities . The import duties were correspondingly raised, partly by way of off-set to the internal taxes, partly as a means of getting additional revenue, and finally in some degree be-cause of a disposition to protect domestic industries . The most important acts were the great revenue acts of 1862 and 1864 . Some further changes were made in 1865, and the close of the war thus left the United States with a complicated system of very high taxes both on imported duties and on domestic products The main features of the tariff history of the United States since the Civil War have been that the internal taxes have been almost entirely swept away, the import duties on purely re-See also:venue articles similarly abolished, while those import duties that operated to protect domestic industries have been maintained, and indeed in many cases increased . The situation has had some See also:analogy to that of France from 1815 to 186o, when similarly a highly restrictive system established during a period of war was unexpectedly retained long after peace had been established . This result in the United States came about by gradual steps and without premeditation . After the close of the war efforts were first directed to clearing the See also:financial situation by funding the floating See also:debt, and taking steps (never fully consummated) towards contracting the currency . Next the internal taxes were gradually done away with, until nothing was left except the excise on beer, spirits and tobacco . No further resort was made to internal taxes until the revenue act of 1898 was passed, at the outbreak of the See also:Spanish War . Efforts were made also to reduce the tariff duties, but these naturally came last: they met with strong opposition, and in the end they were almost completely frustrated, thus leaving as the basis of the tariff the rates which had been levied in the course Gradual of the war . In 1870 some rearrangements were made, See also:consols- the duties on iron and on some other articles being re- See also:Motion duced . In 1872 a more general reduction was carried of war out, strongly resisted by the Protectionists, and finally duties . ending in a See also:uniform cutting off of 10 per cent. from all the import protective duties . In 1875, however, when the revenue had become deficient after the crisis of 1873, the 10 per cent. reduction was repealed, and duties restored to their previous amounts . It deserves to be noted that in 1872 an important step was also taken towards removing entirely the duties on purely revenue articles, tea and coffee being then admitted free of duty . On the other hand, the maintenance of the protective duties, and the gradual consolidation of feeling in favour of a permanent policy of strong protection, led to other revisions and rearrangements in the direction of protection . In 1867 an important act on wool and woollens was passed, largely increasing the duties on both . In 1869 the duty on copper was raised . In 187o, while some duties were lowered, others were raised, as, for instance, those on steel rails and on See also:marble . Thus the ten years immediately following the close of the war brought about the gradual transformation of the high duties levied on all commodities for revenue purposes into a system of high duties almost wholly on protective commodities . This transformation met with much opposition, not less in the Republican party than in the Democratic party . While thefeeling in the Republican party had been from the outset in favour of protection, so high a range of duties met with much opposition . This opposition led to an important general re-See also:vision in 1883, largely influenced by the recommendations of a special Tariff See also:Commission which Congress created in 1882 . The act of 1883 was passed in the main as a party measure by the Republicans, and on the whole served rather of Revisio 1883 . to put in order the protective system as it stood than to make any change of policy . Certain duties were reduced (though in no case greatly reduced) such as those upon wool, some woollens, cheaper grades of cotton cloths, iron, steel rails, copper . On the other hand, on many articles duties already high, but believed to be insufficient for the effective protection of the domestic producer, were raised; e.g., on finer woollens and cottons, on some iron and steel manufactures . The tariff system as revised and codified in 1883 would probably have remained unchanged for many years had it not been for the turn taken by political and financial history . The decade from 188o to 1890 was one of great prosperity, consequently of rising imports, consequently of swelling customs revenue . In the second See also:half of the decade a continuous large surplus in the See also:Treasury necessarily directed See also:attention to the See also:state of the revenue, and gave strength to the protests against excessive See also:taxation . In addition, the Democratic party, which had long been' committed, though in a half-hearted way, against the policy of high protection, was brought to a vigorous and uncompromising attack on it through the leadership of See also:President See also:Cleveland . In his Presidential See also:Message of See also:December 1887 he attacked the protective system in unqualified terms; and in the session of 1887—88 the Democratic majority in the See also:House of Representatives prepared a See also:bill providing for great reductions . The control of the See also:Senate by the Republicans prevented any legislation . But the Republicans, as is almost inevitable under a party system, championed the policy opposed by the other See also:side, and declared themselves not only in favour of the maintenance of existing duties, but of the consistent and unqualified further application of protection . The protection question thus became the main issue in the Presidential See also:election of 1888, which resulted in the defeat of the Democrats . In the next ensuing session of Congress, in 1889—9o, the Republicans passed a new tariff act, known as the See also:McKinley Tariff Act, because Mr McKinley was then chairman of McKlaley the House See also:Committee in See also:charge of the bill . It ad- 1890. vanced duties materially on a considerable number of commodities, both raw materials and manufactured articles . The duties on wool were raised, corresponding changes made on woollen goods, the duties on cottons, linens, some silks, and velvets considerably raised . A further step towards consolidating the protective system was taken by abolishing the duty on sugar, mainly a revenue duty . The See also:necessity for reducing the revenue and cutting down the continued surplus was met in this way rather than by lowering the protective duties . For consistency in maintaining the protective principle a direct See also:bounty was given to the domestic producers of sugar in See also:Louisiana . A turn in the political See also:wheel brought an abrupt change four years later, in 1894 .
The tariff question was again the issue in 1892: President Cleveland, defeated four years before, was now again elected, and the Democratic party came into power, pledged to change the tariff system
.
Accordingly in the first ensuing session of the Congress elected in
1892 the tariff act of 1894 was passed, known as the wllson See also: This circumstance, as well as the failure to make other desired reductions, caused the ardent tariff reformers to be greatly disappointed with the act of 1894 as finally passed, and led President Cleveland to permit it to become law without its endorsement by his See also:signature . The next election in 1896 brought still another turn in the political wheel, the Republicans being once more brought into power under the leadership of President McKinley . The currency issue had been foremost in the See also:campaign, but the Republicans had also proclaimed them-selves in favour of a return to the unqualified protective system . At the extra session which President McKinley called in 1897, almost the See also:sole measure considered was the tariff act, known (again from the name of the chairman of the House Com- mittee) as the Dingley Act . This reimposed the duties upon wool, on most qualities at the precise rates of 189o, on some qualities at even higher rates . Necessarily the duties on woollens were correspondingly raised, and here again made even higher than they had been in 1890 . On other textiles, particularly on silks and linens, similar advances were made . As a rule, the duties of 1890 were either retained or somewhat advanced . To this policy, however, there was a significant exception in the iron and steel schedule, where the reduced duties of 1894 were left mainly unchanged . The iron industry in the United States had made extraordinary advances, and confessedly was not in need of greater protection than had been given in 1894 . Some provisions for See also:reciprocity arrangements with other countries, opening the way for possible reductions of duty by treaty arrangements, were also incorporated in the act of 1897, though with limitations which made it improbable that any considerable changes would ensue from this policy . Some such provisions had also been contained in the act of 189o, but here also without important results . The tariff system of the United States at the beginning of the 2oth century thus remained rigidly and unqualifiedly protective, with rates higher than those of even the most restrictive tariffs of the countries of the European See also:continent . See also:AUTHOiITIES.—Ame, Etude sur See also:les tarifs de douane et sur les traites de commerce (See also:Paris, 1876) ; P . See also:Ashley, See also:Modern Tariff History (See also:London, 1904) ; W . J . Ashley, The Tariff Problem (London, 1904) ; Carl Ballod, See also:Die See also:deutsch-amerikanischen Handelsbeziehungen (See also:Leipzig, 1901) ; C . F . Bastable, The Commerce of Nations (London, 1892) ; A . Beer, Osterreichische Handelspolitik See also:im XIX . Jahrhundert (See also:Vienna, 1891); S . J . See also:Chapman, History of Trade between the United Kingdom and the United States, with special reference to the Effect of Tariffs (London, 1899) ; G . B . Curtiss, Protection and Prosperity: an See also:Account of Tariff Legislation and its Effect in Europe and America (1896) ; Sir C . See also:Dilke, Problems of Greater Britain (London, 189o) ; Dowell, History of Taxes and Taxation in England; T . H . See also:Farrer, The State in Relation to Trade (1883) ; G . M . See also:Fisk, Die Handelspolitik der Vereinigten Staaten, 189o-I900: Schriften See also:des Vereins See also:fur Socialpolitik, XC . (Leipzig, 190o); Funck-See also:Brentano and See also:Dupuis, Les tarifs douaniers et les traites de commerce (Paris, 1896); W . Lotz, Die Handelspolitik des Deutschen Reiches, 189o-1900 (Leipzig, 1901) ; H . Richelot, Le Zollverein (1859); J . W . Root, Colonial Tariffs (See also:Liverpool, 1906) ; E . Stanwood, American Tariff Controversies in the Nineteenth Century (London, 19o3); F . W . See also:Taussig, The Tariff History of the United States (New See also:York, 1893) ; J . Wernicke, System der nationalen Schutzpolitik with aussen (See also:Jena, 1896) . (F . W . |
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