See also:

• TEBESSA (the Roman Theveste)

TEBESSA (the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman Theveste)  , a See also:

• TOWN

town of See also:

• ALGERIA
• ALGERIA (Algerie)

Algeria in the See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine, 146 m . S.E. of See also:

• BONA (BONE)
• BONA, JOHN (1609-1674)

Bona by See also:

• RAIL

rail and 12 M . W. of the Tunisian frontier, on a See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau 2950 ft. above the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea . Pop . (1906) 5722 . The See also:

• MODERN

modern town, which is within the walls of the See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine citadel, boasts nothing of See also:

• INTEREST

interest See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save a See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church built out of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient ruins . The Byzantine walls, pierced by three See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

gates, are in tolerable preservation . They are strengthened by numerous square towers . One of the gates is formed by the quadrifrontal See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch of Cara-calla, a rare See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of construction . The arch, erected about A.D . 212, is in See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good preservation . A pair of monolithic columns, disengaged, flank each See also:

• FACADE

facade .

An inscription on the See also:

• FRIEZE

frieze gives the See also:

• HISTORY

history ,0 its construction; it was built by two See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers as a See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of inheriting the See also:

• PROPERTY

property of a third See also:

• BROTHER

brother . The most important ruins are those of the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• BASILICA

basilica . This See also:

• BUILDING

building, one of the finest See also:

• ROMAN

Roman monuments in Algeria, bears See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of having been built at various epochs; the earlier portions probably date from not later than the beginning of the 2nd See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century A.D . The basilica was partially destroyed by the See also:

• BERBERS

Berbers in the 5th century, and was rebuilt in A.D . 535 by the Byzantine See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• SOLOMON, ODES OF
• SOLOMON, PSALMS OF

Solomon, who surrounded it with a See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall about 25 feet high, still See also:

• STANDING

standing . The See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main building, consisting of a See also:

• NAVE

nave with apsidal end and two aisles, was approached through a See also:

• PERISTYLE (Gr. wept, round, and oriaos, column)

peristyle, which was surrounded by an See also:

• ARCADE

arcade . Many of the columns of the basilica have fallen, but the bases of all are in their See also:

• ORIGINAL

original positions . A See also:

• QUATREFOIL

quatrefoil See also:

• CHAPEL

chapel on the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the basilica is a Byzantine addition . The See also:

• TESSELLATED (Lat. tessellatus,)

tessellated See also:

• PAVEMENT (Lat. pavimentu;n, a floor beaten or rammed hard, from pavire, to beat)

pavement which covers the basilica proper is in almost perfect condition . It is kept covered, for purposes of preservation, by a layer of See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth . Next the basilica (and within the same enclosing walls) are the ruins of the See also:

• FORUM (Lat. from foris, " out of doors ")

forum, converted into a monastery in the 4th or 5th century, and regarded by See also:

• SIR

Sir R . See also:

• LAMBERT [alias NICHOLSON], JOHN (d. 1538)
• LAMBERT, DANIEL (1770-1809)
• LAMBERT, FRANCIS (c 1486-153o)
• LAMBERT, JOHANN HEINRICH (1728–1777)
• LAMBERT, JOHN (1619-1694)

Lambert See also:

• PLAYFAIR, JOHN (1748-1819)
• PLAYFAIR, LYON PLAYFAIR

Playfair as the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest known example of the monasteria clericorum .

The whole of the basilica and its dependencies have been cleared and are kept in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order by the Service See also:

• DES

des Monuments historiques, the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• WORK

work having been accomplished by See also:

• HERON (Fr. heron; Ital. aghirone, airone; Lat. ardea; Gr. ipw&bs: A.-S. hragra; Icelandic, hegre; Swed. hager; Dan. heire; Ger. Heiger, Reiher, Heergans; Dutch, reiger)

Heron de Villefosse . See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

Note-worthy among the buildings within the ancient citadel is a small See also:

• TETRASTYLE (Gr. ehpa-, four, and ari)aos, a column)

tetrastyle See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple, variously ascribed to See also:

• JUPITER

Jupiter andprofession, is called " technical See also:

• EDUCATION

education." See also:

• SCHOOLS

Schools General in which this training is provided are known as technical schools . In its widest sense, technical education embraces all kinds of instruction that have See also:

• DIRECT

direct reference to the career a See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person is following or preparing to follow; but it is usual and convenient to restrict the See also:

• TERM

term to the See also:

• SPECIAL

special training which See also:

• HELPS, SIR ARTHUR (1813-1875)

helps to qualify a person to engage in some See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of productive See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry, and the instruction so provided is generally known as " technological instruction." This specialized education may consist of the explanation of the processes concerned in See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production, or of instruction in See also:

• ART

art or See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science in its relation to industry, but it may also include the acquisition of the See also:

• MANUAL

manual skill which production necessitates . The terms " technical " and " technological " (Gr . T€Xvq, art or See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

craft) as applied to education, arose from the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of finding words to indicate the special training which was needed in consequence of the altered conditions of production during the loth century . Whilst the changed conditions of production, consequent mainly on the application of See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power to machinery, demanded a special training for those who were to he engaged in productive industry, the prevalent See also:

• SYSTEM

system of education was not adapted to the requirements of these persons, and schools were wanted in which the necessary instruction could be obtained . Other circumstances resulting mainly from the application of steam power to changed machinery rendered technical education necessary. See also:

• WADI

wadi . Production on a large See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale led to a great See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension bons of of the principle of the See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of labour, in conse- proc!acquence of which it was found economical to keep a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man See also:

• CON

Con. constantly engaged at the same See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of work, since the more he practised it the quicker and more skilful he became . Thus employed, the workman learned little or nothing of the See also:

• PROCESS

process of the manufacture at which he assisted, or of other departments of the work than the particular one in which he was engaged, and his only opportunity of acquiring such knowledge was outside the workshop or factory in a technical school . The See also:

• ECONOMY

economy effected by the division of labour led to the extension of the principle to other See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries than those in which machinery is largely employed . There are many trades in which manual skill is as necessary now as ever, but even in these the methods of instruction prevailing under the old system of See also:

• APPRENTICESHIP (from Fr. apprendre, to learn)

apprenticeship are now almost obsolete . In many industries, including trades in which machinery is not as yet extensively employed, production on a large scale has increased the demand for unskilled labour, See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers of hands being required to prepare the work to be finished by a few skilled artisans .

Rapidity of See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution is attained by keeping a workman at the same work, which after a See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time he succeeds in mechanically performing and continues to do until some See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine is invented to take his See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place . In most trades, as formerly practised, the See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master Apprenticeship . employed a few apprentices who assisted him in his work, and who learnt from him to understand the details of their craft, so that, when the term of their apprenticeship was over, they were competent to practise as journeymen . But now the master frequently has neither time nor opportunity to instruct See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young lads, and the old relation of master and apprentice is changed into that. of manufacturer and workman . In consequence of these altered relations between employer and employed, there has arisen an acknowledged want of properly trained workmen in a number of trades in which skilful See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand work is still needed; and in these trades a demand has arisen for technical schools, or some other substitute for what was formerly done by apprenticeship, as a means of suitably training workmen and foremen . The ever-increasing competition in production has led to the employment, in many trades, of See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children to do work of a See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical kind requiring little skill; but, whilst thus employed, these young See also:

• PEOPLE

people have little opportunity of learning those parts of their See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade in which skill and special knowledge are needed; and when they are grown up, and seek higher See also:

• WAGES (the plural of " wage," from Late Lat. wadium, a pledge, O. Fr. wagier, gagier)

wages, they are dismissed to make See also:

• ROOM

room for other children . Numbers of young people are thus thrown upon the labour See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market, swelling the percentage of the unemployed, who are competent to do nothing more than children's work, and to See also:

• EARN

earn children's wages, and who know no trade to which they can apply their hands . To remedy this, by creating some substitute for the old apprenticeship, is one of the See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of a system of technical education; though in suitable trades an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement for reviving apprenticeship (q.v.) under improved conditions has also made some way . A See also:

• COMPLETE

complete system of technical education should provide the necessary instruction for the different classes of persons engaged in productive industry . It is usual to See also:

• DIVIDE

divide these persons into three classes:—(r) workmen or journeymen; (2) foremen or overseers; (3) managers or masters . The industries in which they are employed may be grouped under four heads: (r) those involving the use of extensive machinery, such as See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron and See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel manufacture, Glasses of workers. machine-making, the textile industries, and some of the chemical trades; (2) those which mainly require the use of hand tools, as See also:

• CABINET

cabinet-making, See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick-work, See also:

• PLUMBING

plumbing, and tailoring; (3) those depending on See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic skill, as See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood and See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone See also:

• CARVING

carving, See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal-See also:

• CHASING, or ENCHASING

chasing, enamelling, de- corative work, and See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial designing generally; (4) agri- culture in all its branches, and forestry . These industries will be referred to as manufactures, handicrafts, art industries and See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture .

The foregoing See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification comprises See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups which necessarily, to some extent, overlap one another . Every factory contains a See also:

• CARPENTER, LANT (1780-1840)
• CARPENTER, MIRY (1807-1877)
• CARPENTER, WILLIAM BENJAMIN (1813-1885)

carpenter's and See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

smith's See also:

• SHOP

shop, and handi- craftsmen of See also:

• GROUP

group (2) are required in every manufacturing concern . Whilst the industries in which hand labour is ex- clusively employed are becoming fewer and fewer, there are many trades which, owing to the frequent invention of labour- saving appliances, are passing gradually from the class of handicrafts to that of manufactures . In these trades, of which See also:

• WATCH (in O. Eng. wcecce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake)

watch- and See also:

• CLOCK

clock-making and See also:

• BOOT

boot- and See also:

• SHOE (a word appearing in the Teutonic languages in various forms, as Ger. Schuh, Swed. and Dan. sko, sometimes supposed to come from an unknown root ska or sku, cover)

shoe-making may be taken as examples, there is still a demand for goods largely if not entirely produced by hand work . In such trades, owing to the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of facilities for instruction in the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary shops, there is a want of skilled hand labour which there is an increasing difficulty in satisfying, and to See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply this want technical schools of different kinds have been established . Then, again, there are many branches of manufacturing in- dustry which greatly depend for their success upon the de- signer's art, and it is necessary that the industrial designer should possess a knowledge of the processes of the manufacture in which his designs will be utilized, as well as of the properties and capabilities of the material to which they will be applied . Indeed, it is the See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of this knowledge which mainly distinguishes the industrial designer from the ordinary artist . To determine the best training for such designers is one of the problems of technical education . There are many trades, too, in which the handicraftsman and the designer should be See also:

• UNITED

united . This is the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case in such industries as silversmith's and See also:

• GOLDSMITH
• GOLDSMITH, LEWIS (c. 1763–1846)
• GOLDSMITH, OLIVER (1728–1774)

goldsmith's work . In these and other trades the true See also:

• ARTISAN, or ARTIZAN

artisan is the artist and handicraftsman combined . In order to reconcile some of the different views which are held as to the objects of technical education, it is necessary to keep in mind the broad distinction, above referred to, Manufacbetween the conditions of production on a large scale, tares and as in those industries in which goods are manufac- handl- tured by the use of extensive labour-saving machinery, crafts. and in those trades in which hand work is chiefly employed .

Much of the diversity of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion regarding the objects of technical education is due to the difference of standpoint from which the problem is regarded . The See also:

• VOLUME

volume of the trade and See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce of See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain depends mainly on the progress of its manufacturing industries . It is these which chiefly affect the exports and imports . The aim of manufacturers is to produce cheaper and better goods than can be produced by other manufacturers at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home or abroad; and technical education is valuable to them, in so far as it enables them to do so . It also helps to widen the See also:

• AREA

area of productive industry, and to encourage varieties of activity which the See also:

• FREE

free and unfettered conditions of competition tend unduly to restrict . On the other hand, the artisan engaged in hand industries looks to technical education for self-improvement, and for the means of acquiring that general knowledge of the principles and practice of his trade, which he is unable to obtain in the commercial shop . Hence the artisan and the manufacturer approach the See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of the question from different sides . To the spinner or See also:

• WEAVER, JAMES BAIRD (1833- )

weaver who almost exclusively employs See also:

• WOMEN

women to tend his machinery, or to the manufacturing chemist whose workpeople are little more than labourers employed in carrying to and fro materials, knowing little or nothing of the scientific principles underlying the complicated processes in which they are engaged, the technical education of the workpeople may seem to be a See also:

• MATTER

matter of little moment . What such manufacturers require are the services of a few skilled See also:

• ENGINEERS, MILITARY

engineers, artistic designers or scientific chemists . From the manufacturer's point of view, therefore, technical instruction is not so much needed for the hands he employs in his work as for the heads that direct it . But in trades in which machinery plays a subsidiary See also:

• PART

part, technical teaching supplies the place of that instruction which, in former times, the master gave to his apprentice, and the workman is encouraged to attend technical classes with a view to acquiring that know-ledge of the theory and practice of his trade, on the acquisition of which his individual success greatly depends . In the former class of industries, technical education is needed mainly for the training of managers; in the latter, for the training of workmen .

Hence has arisen a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double cry,—for the teaching of art and of the higher branches of science, with a view to their application to manufacturing industry, and for the specialized instruction in See also:

• DRAWING

drawing, and in the scientific facts which help to explain the processes and methods connected with the practice of different crafts and trades . This double cry has led to the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of technical See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities and of trade schools . Owing to the conditions under which manufacturing industry is now carried on, it is difficult to select competent foremen from the See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank and See also:

• FILE

file of the workmen . The ordinary Foremen hands gain a very limited and circumscribed ac- and quaintance with the details of the manufacture in managers. which they are engaged, and have little opportunity of acquiring that general knowledge of various departments of work, and of the structure and uses of the machinery employed, which is essential to the foreman or overseer . It is in evening technical classes that this supplementary instruction, which it is the workman's interest to acquire and the master's to encourage, can be obtained; and it is from the more intelligent workmen who attend these classes that masters and employers will select as foremen those students who are found to possess the essential qualifications . The history of invention shows how frequently important improvements in machinery are made by the workman or minder in See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of it, and adds See also:

• WEIGHT

weight to the arguments already adduced for giving technical instruction to persons of all grades employed in manufacturing industry . To these advantages of technical education, as affecting the workmen themselves as well as the progress of the industry in which they are engaged, must be added the general improvement in the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the work produced, resulting from the See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior and better-trained intelligence of those who have had the benefit of such instruction . It will be seen from the foregoing that a complete system of technical education must make See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision for the training of those who are to be occupied as journeymen or foremen in different branches of trade or industry, and also for those who aim at becoming managers or masters or heads of manufacturing firms, scientific advisers or professional engineers . As technical Proles- education necessarily implies specialized teaching, the slonaland curriculum and methods of instruction adopted in general the elementary and secondary schools, where students educa- receive their preliminary training, are matters closely See also:

• DON
• DON (anc. Tanais)

don. related to any See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme of technical instruction, and the trend of educational opinion is in favour of associating the general instruction given in those schools with the specialized teaching of the technical institutions . Indeed, it is daily becoming more difficult to draw any hard-and-fast See also:

• LINE

line between professional and general education . It is now universally recognized that the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations of technical instruction must be laid in the elementary and the secondary schools, and many of the changes which have been made in the organization of those schools had their origin in the requirements of technical institutions . A See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short survey of the methods adopted in different countries to provide the specialized teaching applicable to different pursuits, and of its relation to the general school system of those countries, will serve as a fitting introduction to the consideration of the legislative and other changes which have gradually been made in the See also:

• BRITISH

British school system with a view to modern industrial conditions .

The study of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign systems of education is serviceable, as showing the relation of such systems j_to i the industrial needs of each See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country and to the See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius and character of the people . In the organization of technical education in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, full See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage has been taken of foreign experience, although no See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt has been made to imitate too closely foreign methods . Detailed See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information as to what has been done abroad is found in the published reports of the several See also:

• ENGLISH

English commissions which have been appointed to inquire into the subject, and in the valuable See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of special reports issued from the See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

Board of Education . From these reports, which show how varied have been the attempts to adapt school training to modern industrial requirements, certain general principles may be inferred, which are equally applicable to the conditions under which the trade and commerce of different countries is now carried on . These general principles may be briefly enunciated as follows: r . The education of all persons who may expect to be occupied General in some form of productive industry may be con- prin- sidered as consisting of two parts, (a) general, (b) cipfes. special . 2 . The general education is the preliminary training provided in elementary and secondary schools, and the curriculum of those schools should be varied so as to have some reference to the future pursuits of the pupils . 3 . The special or supplementary instruction should be adapted to the requirements of different grades and classes of workers, and to different trades or occupations as practised in different localities . A c9mplete system of technical education would afford facilities of training adapted to every kind and grade of industry; but, owing to the complexity of the problem, such a system is nowhere to be found . In every country the scheme of education and method of instruction have varied from time ;to time, as the conditions regulating trade and industry havechanged .

But recently in all civilized countries, the effort has been made to provide a general and specialized education adapted to different pursuits for each of these great classes of workers: (r) operatives, (2) foremen and overseers, (3) masters and managers . r . Workmen.—Many attempts have been made to provide a substitute for apprenticeship, but hitherto with no great success . Two classes of workpeople have to be considered—(r) those engaged in manufacturing industries, and (2) those engaged in handicraft industries . The education of all classes of workpeople begins in the public elementary schools; and, in view of the future occupation of the children, it may be taken for granted that See also:

• PRIMARY

primary instruction should be See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical, and should include drawing and elementary science . It should indeed be closely associated with manual training, consisting of workshop exercises and See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field work in the case of boys in See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

urban and rural schools respectively, and of instruction in the domestic arts in the case of girls . The lessons in drawing and in elementary science should form part of the manual B/emeattraining, and the school curriculum should be unified so that all the subjects of instruction should be grouped 'It; ono' together as parts of an organized system . The desired diversity should be found in the different kinds and grades of manual work . See also:

• READING

Reading, See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing and See also:

• ARITHMETIC (Gr. apeOµ7run7, sc. TEXVn, the art of counting, from (ipLBµos, number)

arithmetic would be taught incidentally in See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close connexion with the practical exercises . In nearly every country of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, and in the United States, the trend of education practice is in this direction . In See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium, See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland and See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden handicraft instruction is generally included in the curriculum of elementary schools . Rudimentary science is also taught in nearly all the primary schools of Europe .

Modelling is taught both to boys and girls in many See also:

• CONTINENTAL

Continental schools; and in Sweden sloyd " (Sw. stojd, manual dexterity, cf . Eng . " sleight "), a system of manual training, in which See also:

• SIMPLE

simple and useful articles, especially of wood, are constructed with the fewest possible tools, is taught with considerable success to children of both sexes . In See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany and See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland, there exists an excellent system of evening continuation schools, known as Forlbildungs- or Erganzungs-Schulen, in which the instruction of the children who leave school before fourteen, and of those who leave at that See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, is continued . In all these schools drawing is taught with special reference to See also:

• LOCAL

local industries . In England great progress has been made in See also:

• RECENT

recent years in developing evening classes in which the pupils' elementary instruction is continued with a view to the Coa specialized teaching provided in the technical school. ilnuatfon The teaching in these continuation schools is generally schools. varied according as the See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil is occupied in trade or See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office work, and the practice is becoming general of requiring him to pass a qualifying examination to secure See also:

• ADMISSION

admission to classes in technology . It will be seen, therefore, that the training of most workpeople, and of nearly all those who are engaged in manufacturing industry, consists of:—(r) primary teaching in elementary schools; (2) practice in the factory or shop, supplemented by further elementary teaching; (3) evening instruction in technology . In all the principal towns throughout Europe evening classes have been established for teaching drawing, See also:

• PAINTING

painting and designing, and the elements of science in their application to special industries . The instruction, however, is less practical than that provided in the corresponding schools in England . The classes abroad are mainly supported by the municipalities, by the See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers of commerce, by industrial or trade See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies, by See also:

• COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

county boards, and in some cases by the fees of the pupils . They receive little or no support from the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state . They are well attended by workpeople of all grades, who are encouraged by their employers to profit by these opportunities of instruction .

In England evening technical instruction is more systematically organized than in any other country . It is under the general direction of the Board of Education, and of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

City and Guilds of See also:

• LONDON

London See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

Institute . The Board of Education prescribe the conditions under which grants are paid to schools providing technical instruction . In former years these grants were paid on the results of the examination of individual students; but this method of apportioning state aid has been almost entirely abandoned . The Board Evening still hold See also:

• ANNUAL

annual See also:

• EXAMINATIONS

examinations in science and art and in cer- technical See also:

• TAIN

tain branches of applied science; but 'the more specialized classes. examinations in technology and trade subjects are held annually by the City and Guilds of London Institute, through its department of technology . These latter examinations are utilized by the Board, and the certificates granted on the results are recognized in the See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment of teachers . The technical schools in which these classes are held are under the direct See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of the local educational authorities, and are largely supported by grants from local rates . See also:

• YEAR

Year by year a larger See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share of responsibility is being thrown upon the local authorities, with a view to encouraging greater variety of instruction and further See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation of the teaching to local needs . The Board continue, however, to indicate the range of subjects to be taught in preparation for their annual examinations, and the City and Guilds of London Institute issues each year a See also:

• PROGRAMME, or PROGRAM

programme containing suggested courses of training in nearly a See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred trade subjects . Study of foreign systems . In the evening classes in science, art and technology, which have been established throughout the United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom, the workman or foreman engaged in any manufacturing industry has the opportunity, by See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of a very small See also:

• FEE

fee, of studying art in all its branches, science theoretically and practically., and the technology of any particular industry . Provided his See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early education enables him to take advantage of this instruction, no better system has been - suggested of enabling workmen, whilst earning wages at an early age, to acquire manual skill by continuous practice, and at the same time to gain a knowledge of the principles of science connected with their work and explanatory of the processes of the manufacture in which they are engaged .

For those engaged in handicraft trades this evening instruction is equally valuable, and not only in England, but equally in other parts of Europe, there exist evening trade schools in which the workman is able to supplement the " sectional " practice he acquires in the shop by more general practice in other branches of his trade . In See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, for example, and elsewhere in See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria, there are found practical evening classes for carpenters, turners, joiners, metal-workers and others . Throughout Europe schools for See also:

• WEAVING

weaving, with practical work at the See also:

• LOOM

loom and See also:

• PATTERN

pattern-designing, have existed for many years . To provide a training more like the old system of apprentice-See also:

• SHIP

ship, schools have been established in many parts of Europe and Trade in the United States which are known as professional, schools. trade or apprenticeship schools (ecoles professionelles, ecoles des apprentis, Fachschulen) . The See also:

• OBJECT

object is to See also:

• TRAIN (M. Eng. trayn or trayne, derived through Fr. from Late Lat. trahinare, to drag, draw, Lat. trahere, cf. trail, trace, ultimately from the same source)

train workmen; and the pupils, after completing their course of instruction in such a school, are supposed to have learnt a trade . The school is the substitute for the shop . In such a school the pupils have the advantage of being taught their trade systematically and leisurely, and production is made subsidiary to instruction . Under such an artificial system of production, the pupil is less likely to acquire excellence of workmanship and smartness of See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit than in the See also:

• MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES

mercantile shop, under the See also:

• STRAIN (through O. Fr. straindre, estraindre, mod. i treindre, from Lat. stringere, to draw tight, related to stress, stretch, string, &c.)

strain of severe competition . More-over, the cost of See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of these schools renders it impossible to look to them as a general substitute for apprenticeship . By sending into the labour market, however, a few highly trained workmen, who are absorbed in various See also:

• WORKS

works and exert a beneficial See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence on other workmen, these schools serve a useful purpose . Schools of this kind have been tried with more or less success in different countries . In See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris there is the well-known Ecole See also:

• DIDEROT, DENIS (1713-1784)

Diderot for the training of See also:

• MECHANICS

mechanics, fitters, smiths, &c.; and similar schools have been established in other parts of France .

For many years a society of See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian Brethren has directed a large school situated in the See also:

• RUE (Fr. rue, Lat. ruta, from Gr. pur)

Rue Vaugirard, Paris, in which different trades are taught . All the See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular and general instruction is given gratuitously by the brothers, and in the several shops attached to the school skilled workmen are employed, who instruct the pupil apprentices, and utilize their labour . This system combines many of the advantages of shop work and school work, but it depends financially for its success upon the religious spirit which actuates its promoters arid supporters . The Artane school, near See also:

• DUBLIN

Dublin, is conducted on somewhat similar principles, but is intended for a See also:

• LOWER

lower class of children . In Austria, particularly in the rural districts, there are numerous See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day schools for the training of carpenters, joiners, turners, cabinetmakers, workers in stone and See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble, in See also:

• SILVER

silver and other metals, &c . Schools of the same class are found in Germany, See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy and Holland, and schools very similar in character have been organized to a limited extent in England . The demand that called them into existence in other parts of Europe and in See also:

• AMERICA

America has been See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt in the United Kingdom . The difficulty of securing for apprentices in a commercial shop systematic training in handicraft has led to the establishment of a few trade schools which receive children from the elementary school about the age of thirteen for a three years' course of instruction . In these schools the time is about equally divided between ordinary school subjects and the practice of some handicraft, such as cabinet-making, upholstery, waistcoat-making, millinery . Parents are encouraged to allow their children to receive this further education by the offer of free teaching and maintenance grants . Such schools, how-ever, must be regarded as educational experiments, to be superseded if found necessary by See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason of changes in the conditions under which the trade is practised . Any system of technical education, however, should be sufficiently elastic to permit of such experiments and of the introduction of types of instruction to meet special and even temporary needs .

It is only in certain cases that apprenticeship schools can be said to See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer satisfactorily the purpose for which they have been established . Where a new industry, especially in rural, districts, has to be created; where decaying industries need to be revived; where machinery is superseding hand work, and, owing to the demands for ordinary hands, there is a dearth of skilled workmen; where through the effects of competition and other causes the trade is carried on under conditions in which competent workmen cannot be properly trained in the ordinary shop,—in these cases, and in various art industries, an apprenticeship school may prove to be the best means of training workmen and of advancing particular trades . Generally, an apprenticeship school should be looked upon as a temporaryexpedient, as a form of See also:

• RELIEF

relief applied at the See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth of a new industry or to meet some special conditions under which a trade is practised . The proper training school for workmen is the factory or shop . In the United States there are only a few schools which have been specially organized with a view to the training of workmen for special trades . The line between technical and general educa• tion is not very clearly defined in any of the states' schools . It is also difficult to give any such general See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

review of the system of education in America as can be presented in connexion with France or Germany or Italy, owing to the fact that each See also:

• SEPARATE

separate state has its own organization, over which the Federal See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government exercises no direct control . In none of the states is technical education differentiated by class distinctions to the same extent as in continental countries . The ambition of every workman is to become a master, and this general ambition gives rise to an See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm for education among all classes, which does not exist to the same extent in any other country . In the United States are found evening technical schools and schools of See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design for those who have passed from the See also:

• COMMON

common schools into commercial work; but the See also:

• DESIRE

desire for further instruction is so marked that many of those who have received only an elementary education endeavour, by working during the vacations, or by other means, to save enough See also:

• MONEY

money to attend the higher technical schools, and so acquire the necessary skill and knowledge to improve their position in the factory or workshop . 2 . Foremen.—The foreman must be See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar with the various branches of work he is to overlook; and the training which the workman receives in the factory or shop affords him but Training scanty opportunities of obtaining this general knowledge. offore-The foreman needs also a generally superior education. men .

How then are foremen to be trained ? The problem is somewhat easier than that of training workmen, because the number required is fewer . The variety of schools in Europe devoted to this purpose is very great . There are three distinct ways in which foremen are being trained . (a) The evening technical classes in Britain and on the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent offer to ambitious workmen an opportunity of acquiring a know-ledge of other departments of the trade than those in which they are engaged, as well as of the scientific principles underlying their work . These classes serve the double purpose of improving the workpeople and of affording a means of discovering those who are best fitted to occupy higher posts . (b) Special schools have been established for the training of fore-men . There are many schools of this kind in which selected boys are received after leaving the higher elementary or secondary school . The best known are those at Chalons, See also:

• AIX

Aix, See also:

• NEVERS

Nevers, See also:

• ANGERS

Angers and See also:

• LILLE

Lille in France . These schools are intended for the training of foremen in See also:

• ENGINEERING

engineering trades . They are state institutions, in which practical mechanical work in the shops is supplemented by theoretical instruction . The first of these schools was founded in 1803 .

The course lasts three years, and the students spend from six to seven See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours a day in the workshop, and are trained as fitters, founders, smiths and pattern-makers . As in all such schools, saleable goods are produced, but, as production is subordinated to instruction, the school does not bind itself to deliver work at a given date, and therefore does not compete with any manufacturing establishment . The students on leaving these schools are competent at once to undertake the duties of foremen and See also:

• DRAUGHTS (from AS. dragan, to draw)

draughts-men . At See also:

• KOMOTAU (Czech, Chomiitov)

Komotau, See also:

• STEYR, or STEIER

Steyr, See also:

• KLAGENFURT (Slovene, Celovec)

Klagenfurt, Ferlach and many other places schools have been established on somewhat similar principles . In Germany there are special schools for the training of foremen in the building trade, which are chiefly frequented in the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter, and numerous schools are found in all parts of the continent for the training of weavers . At See also:

• WINTERTHUR

Winterthur in Switzerland a school has been established the main purpose of which is the training of foremen . In Italy there are numerous technical institutes, the object of which is to train young men for intermediate posts in industrial works . In London, the See also:

• FINSBURY

Finsbury technical See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college of the City and Guilds of London Institute has a day department, the main purpose of which is the training of youths as foremen, works managers, &c.; but in this school the character of the instruction deviates considerably from that given in See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French schools, and aims rather at preparing youths to learn, than at teaching them their trade . (c) A third method adopted for the training of foremen is by encouraging selected children of the ordinary elementary schools to continue their education in schools of a higher grade of a technical character . It is thought that, by developing to a higher degree the intelligence and skill of those children who show aptitude for scientific and practical work, they will be able, when they enter the shop, to learn their trade more quickly and more thoroughly, and to acquire that general knowledge of their work, and to exhibit those special aptitudes, which may qualify them for the position of foreman or overseer . The education given in these ,schools, although having some See also:

• BIAS
• BIAS (from the Fr. biais, of unknown origin; the derivation from Lat. bifax, two-faced, is wrong)

bias towards the future career of the pupil, is disciplinary in character, and consists of the subjects of primary instruction further pursued,—of drawing, modelling, science, See also: