See also:

• TERRAMARA (from Ital. terra mama, " marl ")

TERRAMARA (from Ital. terra mama, " See also:

• MARL (from O. Fr. marle, Late Lat. margila, dim. of marga; cf. Du. and Ger. Mergel)

marl ")  , the name given by archaeologists' to a type of See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive culture mainly of the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• BRONZE

bronze See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, but stretching back into the later See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone age . This See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization is represented by a number of mounds, formerly thought (e. g. by Venturi) to be sepulchral, but really the remains of human habitations, analogous to See also:

• SHELL
• SHELL (O. Eng. scell, scyll, cf. Du. sceel, shell, Goth. skalja, tile; the word means originally a thin flake,. cf. Swed. skalja, to peel off; it is allied to " scale " and " skill," from a root meaning to cleave, divide, separate)

shell heaps (q.v.) or See also:

• KITCHEN (O.E. cycene; this and other cognate forms, such as Dutch keuken, Ger. Kiuche, Dan. kokken, Fr. cuisine, are formed from the Low Lat. cucina, Lat. coquina, coquere, to cook)

kitchen middens . They are found chiefly in See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, in the valley of the Po, See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round . See also:

• MODENA (ancient Mutina)

Modena, See also:

• MANTUA (Ital. Mantova)

Mantua and See also:

• PARMA

Parma . A See also:

• SUMMARY

summary of early results as to these mounds was published by See also:

• MUNRO, HUGH ANDREW JOHNSTONE (1819-1885)
• MUNRO, MUNRO
• MUNRO, SIR HECTOR (1726-1805)
• MUNRO, SIR THOMAS (1761-1827)

Munro (See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake Dwellings) in 189o, but scientific investigation really began only with the excavation of the See also:

• TERRAMARA (from Ital. terra mama, " marl ")

terramara at Castellazzo di Fontanellato (See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Parma) in 1889 . From this and succeeding investigations certain See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general conclusions have been reached . The terramara, in spite of See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences, is of typical See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form; it is a See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement, trapezoidal in form, built upon piles on dry See also:

• LAND

land protected by an earthwork strengthened on the inside by but resses, and en-circled by a wide See also:

• MOAT

moat supplied with See also:

• RUNNING

running See also:

• WATER

water . The See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east and See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west sides are parallel, and two roads, at right angles See also:

• DIVIDE

divide the settlement into four quarters . Outside are one or two cemeteries . Traces of burning which have been found render it probable that, when the refuse thrown down among the piles had filled the space, the settlement was burned and a new one built upon the remains . The origin of the terramara type is not definitely ascertained . The most probable inference, however, is that these settlements were not built to avoid the danger of inundation, but represent a survival of the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary lake dwelling .

The remains discovered may be briefly summarized . Stone See also:

• OBJECTS

objects are few . Of bronze (the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief material) axes, daggers, swords, razors and knives are found, as also See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor implements, such as See also:

• SICKLES, DANIEL EDGAR (1825– )

sickles, needles, pins, brooches, &c . There are also objects of See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone and See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, besides pottery (both coarse and See also:

• FINE

fine: see See also:

• CERAMICS, or KERAMICS (Gr. KEpapos, earthenware)

CERAMICS), See also:

• AMBER

amber and See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass-See also:

• PASTE (O. Fr. paste, modern pate, Late Lat. pasta, whence also in Span., Port. and Ital., from Gr. 1r&vrrl or 1raara, barley porridge, or salted pottage, ir&ao'ety, to sprinkle with salt)

paste . Small See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay figures, chiefly of animals (though human figures are found at Castellazzo), are interesting as being practically the earliest specimens of plastic See also:

• ART

art found in Italy . The occupations of the terramara See also:

• PEOPLE

people as compared with their See also:

• NEOLITHIC, or LATER STONE AGE (Gr. vEOr, new, and XLOos, stone)

neolithic predecessors may be inferred with See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative certainty . They were still hunters, but had domesticated animals; they were fairly skilful metallurgists, casting bronze in moulds of stone and clay; they were also agriculturists, cultivating beans, the See also:

• VINE

vine, See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat and See also:

• FLAX

flax . According to Prof . W . Ridgeway (Who were the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans? p . 16; and Early Age of See also:

• GREECE

Greece, i . 496) See also:

• BURIAL

burial was by inhumation: investigation, however, of the cemeteries shows that the bodies were burned and the ashes placed in ossuaries; practically no objects were found in the urns .

See also:

• GREAT

Great differences of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion have arisen as to the origin and ethnographical relations of the terramara folk . Brizio in his Epoca Preistorjca advances the theory that they were the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original Ibero-Ligurians who at some early See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period took to erecting See also:

• PILE

pile-dwellings . Why they should have done so is difficult to see . Some of the terremare are clearly not built with a view to avoiding inundation, inasmuch as they stand upon hills . The rampart and the moat are for See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence against enemies, not against floods, and as Brizio brings in no new invading people till See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long after the terramara period, it is difficult to see why the Ibero-Ligurians should have abandoned their unprotected hut-settlements and taken to elaborate fortification . There are other difficulties of a similar See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . Hence Pigorini regards the terramara people as an See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan lake-dwelling people who invaded the north of Italy in two waves from Central See also:

• EUROPE

Europe (the See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube valley) in the end of the stone age and the beginning of the bronze age, bringing with them the See also:

• BUILDING

building tradition which led them to erect pile dwellings on dry land . `these people he calls the Italici, to whom he attributes also the culture known as See also:

• VILLANOVA

Villanova (q.v.) . This view 1 Since the See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

International See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

Congress of Prehistoric See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

Archaeology at See also:

• BOLOGNA
• BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524–1608)

Bologna in 1871, when the shortened form terramara (plur. terremare) was adopted . is regarded as falling in with discoveries (somewhat incomplete, it is true) in See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary and Bosnia . AuTHOR ! TIES.—All the See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence is collected by T .

E . Peet, The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy and See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily (See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, 1909), xiv. and xviii., which gives illustrations and references to the more important literature; this See also:

• WORK

work supersedes all previous See also:

• WORKS

works on the krremare . Prof . Pigorini's See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article, " Le id antiche civilta dell' Italia," in Bullettino di paletnologia italiana, See also:

• XXIX

xxix., is classical . See also the works of Montelius, Modestov, and Ridgeway (Early Age of Greece, vol. i.) . U . M .