See also:

• TERTULLIAN (c. 155-c. 222)

TERTULLIAN (c. 155-c. 222)  , whose full name was See also:

• QUINTUS

QUINTUS SEPTIMIUS FLORENS TERTULLIANUS, is the earliest and after See also:

• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430)
• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (d. c.613)

Augustine the greatest of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church writers of the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West . Before him the whole See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian literature in the Latin See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language consisted of a See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible, the Octavius of Minucius See also:

• FELIX
• FELIX, ANTONIUS
• FELIX, LIA (1830– )

Felix (q.v.)—an apologetic See also:

• TREATISE

treatise written in the Ciceronian See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style for the higher circles of society, and with no evident effect for the church as a whole, the brief Acts of the Scillitan martyrs, and a See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of the books recognized as canonical (the so-called Muratorian fragment) . Whether See also:

• VICTOR
• VICTOR, GAIUS JULIUS (4th cent. A.D.)
• VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS

Victor the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop and See also:

• APOLLONIUS

Apollonius the Roman senator ever really made an See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance as Latin authors is quite uncertain . See also:

• TERTULLIAN (c. 155-c. 222)

Tertullian in fact created Christian Latin literature; one might almost say that that literature sprang from him full-grown, alike in See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form and substance, as See also:

• ATHENA (the Attic form of the Homeric Athene, also called Athenaia, Pallas Athene, Pallas)

Athena from the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of See also:

• ZEUS

Zeus . See also:

• CYPRIAN, SAINT [Caecilius Cyprianus, called THASCIUS] (c. 200–258)

Cyprian polished the language that Tertullian had made, sifted the thoughts he had given out, rounded them off, and turned them into current See also:

• COIN
• COIN (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign, all derived through the O. Fr. coing, and cuigne from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

coin, but he never ceased to be aware of his dependence on Tertullian, whom he designated as Kris' Eoxig, his See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master (Jer., De vir . •See also:

• ILL

ill . 53) . Augustine, again, stood on the shoulders of Tertullian and Cyprian; and these three See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North Africans are the fathers of the Western churches . Tertullian's See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in universal See also:

• HISTORY

history is determined by (1) his intellectual and spiritual endowments, (2) his moral force and evangelical fervour, (3) the course of his See also:

• PERSONAL

personal development, (4) the circumstances of the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time in the midst of which he worked . (1) Tertullian was a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man of See also:

• GREAT

great originality and See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius, characterized by the deepest pathos, the liveliest See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy, and the most penetrating keenness, and was endowed with ability to appropriate and make use of all the methods of observation and See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation, and with the readiest wit . His writings in See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone and See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character are always alike " See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in thought and destitute of form, passionate and See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair-splitting, eloquent and pithy in expression, energetic and condensed to the point of obscurity." His style has been characterized with See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice as dark and resplendent like See also:

• EBONY (Gr. E(3evos)

ebony . His eloquence was of the vehement See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order; but it wins hearers and readers by the strength of its See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion, the See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy of its truth, the pregnancy and elegance of its expression, just as much as it repels them by its See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat without See also:

• LIGHT

light, its sophistical argumentations, and its elaborate hair-splittings .

Though he is wanting in moderation and in luminous warmth, his tones are by no means always harsh; and as an author he ever aspired with longing after humility and love and See also:

• PATIENCE

patience, though his whole See also:

• LIFE

life was lived in the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere of conflict . Tertullian both as a man and as'a writer had much in See also:

• COMMON

common with the apostle See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul . (2) In spite of all the contradictions in which he involved himself as a thinker and as a teacher, Tertullian was a compact ethical See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality . What he was he was with his whole being . Once a Christian, he was determined to be so with all his soul, and to shake himself See also:

• FREE

free of all See also:

• HALF

half See also:

• MEASURES

measures and compromises with the See also:

• WORLD

world . It is not difficult to See also:

• LAY

lay one's See also:

• FINGER

finger upon very many obliquities, self-deceptions and sophisms in Tertullian in matters of detail, for he 'struggled for years to reconcile things that were in themselves irreconcilable; yet in each See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case the perversities and sophisms were rather . the outcome of the peculiarly difficult circumstances in which he stood . It is easy to convict him of having failed to See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control the glowing passion that was in him . He is often outrageously unjust in the substance of what he says, and in manner harsh to cynicism, scornful to gruesomeness; but in no See also:

• BATTLE

battle that he fought was he ever actuated by selfish interests . What he did was really done for the See also:

• GOSPEL (O. Eng. godspel, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. bona annuntiatio, or evangelium, Gr. evayyeXwv; cf. Goth. iu spillon, " to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek, from iu, that which is good, and spellon to announce)

Gospel, as he understood it, with all the faculties of his soul . But he understood the Gospel as being primarily an assured See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope and a See also:

• HOLY

holy See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, as fear of the See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

Judge who can See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast into See also:

• HELL (0. Eng. hel, a Teutonic word from a root meaning " to cover," cf. Ger. Holle, Dutch hel)

hell and as an inflexible See also:

• RULE

rule of faith and of discipline . Of the glorious See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty of the See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children of See also:

• GOD

God he had nothing but a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere presentiment; he looked for it only in the world beyond the See also:

• GRAVE

grave, and under the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of the Gospel he counted as loss all the world could give . He well understood The meaning of See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ's saying that He came not into the world to bring See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace, but a See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword: in a See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period when a lak spirit of conformity to the world- had seized the churches he maintained the " vigor evangelicus " not merely against the Gnostics but against opportunists and a worldly-See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy .

Among all the fathers of the first three centuries Tertullian has given the most powerful expression to the terrible earnestness of the Gospel . (3) The course of Tertullian's personal development fitted him in an altogether remarkable degree to be a teacher of the church . See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

Born at See also:

• CARTHAGE
• CARTHAGE (Phoenician Kart-hadshat, " New City "; Gr. Kapxn5c; v, Lat. Carthago or Carchedon)
• CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF

Carthage of See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• FAMILY

family—his See also:

• FATHER

father was a " centurio See also:

• PRO

pro consularis "—he received a first-See also:

• RATE

rate See also:

• EDUCATION

education both in Latin and in See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek . He was able to speak and write Greek; and gives See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of familiarity alike with its See also:

• PROSE

prose and with its See also:

• POETRY

poetry; and his excellent memory—though he himself complains about it—enabled him always to bring in at the right place an appropriate, often brilliant, See also:

• QUOTATION

quotation or some See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical allusion . The old historians, from See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus to See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus, were See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar to him, and the accuracy of his historical knowledge is astonishing . He studied with See also:

• EARNEST (probably a corruption of the obsolete arles or erles, adapted from Lat. equivalent arrha, due to a confusion with the adjective " earnest," serious, O. Eng. eornust, cognate with Ger. ernst)

earnest zeal the Greek philosophers; See also:

• PLATO

Plato in particular, and the writings of the See also:

• STOICS

Stoics, be had fully at command, and his treatise De Anima shows that he himself was able to investigate and discuss philosophical problems . From the philosophers he had been led to the medical writers, whose See also:

• TREATISES

treatises plainly had a place in his working library . But no portion of this rich See also:

• STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store of See also:

• MISCELLANEOUS

miscellaneous knowledge has See also:

• LEFT

left its characteristic impress on his writings; this See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence was reserved for his legal training . His father, whose military spirit reveals itself in the whole bearing of Tertullian, to whom See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity was above every-thing a " See also:

• MILITIA (Fr. milice, Ger. Miliz, from Lat. miles, soldier, militia, military service)

militia," had intended him for the law . He studied in Carthage, probably also in See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, where, according to See also:

• EUSEBIUS
• EUSEBIUS (Gr. EuOi/3tos, from ebaegils, pious, cf. the Latin name Pius)
• EUSEBIUS [OF CAESAREA] (c. 260-c. 340)
• EUSEBIUS [OF EMESA] (d. c. "36o)

Eusebius, he enjoyed the reputation of being one of the most eminent jurists . This statement derives See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

confirmation from the See also:

• DIGEST

Digest, where references are made to two See also:

• WORKS

works, De Castrensi Peculio and Quaestionum Libri VIII., of a Roman jurist named Tertullian, who must have flourished about 18o A.D . In point of fact the quondam See also:

• ADVOCATE (Lat. advocatus, from advocare, to summon, especially in law to call in the aid of a counsel or witness, and so generally to summon to one's assistance)

advocate never disappeared in the Christian See also:

• PRESBYTER (Gr. apactObTepos, elder, the comparative of IrOo-Oas, an old man)

presbyter .

This was at once his strength and his weakness: his strength, for as a professional pleader he had learned how Io See also:

• DEAL

deal with an adversary according to the rules of the See also:

• ART

art—to pull to pieces his theses, to reduce him ad absurd-um, and to show the defects and contradictions of his statements,—and was specially qualified to expose the irregularities in the proceedings taken by the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state against the Christians; but it was also his weakness, for it was responsible for his litigiousness, his often doubtful shifts and artifices, his sophisms and argumentationes ad hominem, his fallacies and surprises . At Rome in mature manhood Tertullian became a Christian, under what circumstances we do not know, and forthwith he See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent himself with allhis energy to the study of Scripture and'of Christian literature . Not only was he master of the contents of the Bible: he also read carefully the works of See also:

• HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF

Hermas, See also:

• JUSTIN (JUNIANUS JUSTINUS)

Justin, See also:

• TATIAN (2nd cent. A.D.)

Tatian, See also:

• MILTIADES

Miltiades, See also:

• MELITO

Melito, See also:

• IRENAEUS

Irenaeus, Proculus, See also:

• CLEMENT (Lat. Clemens, i.e. merciful; Gr. K)4gs)
• CLEMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793)
• CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589)

Clement, as well as many Gnostic treatises, the writings of See also:

• MARCION

Marcion in particular . In See also:

• APOLOGETICS

apologetics his See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal master was Justin, and in See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology proper and in the controversy with the Gnostics, Irenaeus . As a thinker he was not See also:

• ORIGINAL

original, and even as a theologian he has produced but few schemes of See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine, except his doctrine of See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

sin . His See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. die Gift, gift, das Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf. Dutch geven, Ger. geben; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence)

gift lay in the power to make what had been traditionally received impressive, to give to it its proper form, and to gain for it new currency . From Rome Tertullian visited See also:

• GREECE

Greece and perhaps also See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor; at any rate we know that he had temporary relations with the churches there . He was consequently placed in a position in which he could check the doctrine and practice of the Roman church . Thus equipped with knowledge and experience, he returned to Carthage and there laid the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of Latin 'Christian literature . At first, after his See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion, he wrote Greek, but by and by Latin almost exclusively . The elements of this Christian Latin language may be enumerated as follows:-(i.) it had its origin, not in the See also:

• LITERARY

literary language of Rome as See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed by See also:

• CICERO

Cicero, but in the language of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people as we find it in See also:

• PLAUTUS, TITUS MACCIUS (originally perhaps MACCUS; cf. Asin. Prol. 11)

Plautus and See also:

• TERENCE

Terence; (ii.) it has an See also:

• AFRICAN

African complexion; (iii.) it is strongly influenced by Greek, particularly through the Latin translation of the See also:

• SEPTUAGINT, THE (Gr. of 0', Lat. LXX.)

Septuagint and of the New Testament, besides being sprinkled with a large number of Greek words derived from the Scriptures or from the Greek liturgies; (iv.) it bears the See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

stamp of the Gnostic style and contains also some military expressions; (v.) it owes something to the original creative power of Tertullian . As for his theology, its leading factors were—(i.) the teachings of the apologists; (ii.) the See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy of the Stoics; (iii.) the rule of faith, interpreted in an See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-Gnostic sense, as he had received it from the Church of Rome; (iv.) the Soteriological theology of Melito and Irenaeus; (v.) the substance of the utterances of the Montanist prophets (in the closing decades of his life) .

This See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis does not disclose, nor indeed is it possible to discover, what was the determining See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element for Tertullian; in fact he was under the dominion of more than one ruling principle, and he See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt him-self See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound by several mutually opposing authorities . It was his See also:

• DESIRE

desire to unite the See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm of See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive Christianity with intelligent thought, the original demands of the Gospel with every See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter of the Scriptures and with the practice of the Roman church, the sayings of the Paraclete with the authority of the bishops, the law of the churches with the freedom of the inspired, the rigid discipline of the Montanist with all the utterances of the New Testament and with the arrangements of a church seeking to set itself up within the world . - At this task he toiled for years, involved in contradictions which it took all the finished skill of the jurist to conceal from him for a time . At last he felt compelled to break off from the church for which he had lived and fought; but the See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach could not clear him from the contradictions in which he found himself entangled . Not only did the great chasm between the old Christianity, to which his soul clung, and the Christianity of the Scriptures as juristically and philosophically interpreted remain unbridged; he also clung fast, in spite of his separation from the See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic church, to his position that the church possesses the true doctrine, that the bishops per successionem are the repositories of the See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace of the teaching See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office, and so forth . The growing violence of his latest works is to be accounted for, not only by his burning indignation against the ever-advancing secularization of the Catholic church, but also by the incompatibility between the authorities which he recognized and yet was not able to reconcile . After having done battle with heathens, See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews, Marcionites, Gnostics, Monarchians, and the Catholics, he died an old man, carrying with him to the grave the last remains of primitive Christianity in the West, but at the same time in conflict with himself . (4) What has just been said brings out very clearly how important in their bearing on Tertullian's development were the circumstances of the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age in which he laboured . His activity as a Christian falls between Igo and 220, a period of very great moment in the history of the Catholic church; for within it the struggle with See also:

• GNOSTICISM (Gr. yvwvcs, knowledge)

Gnosticism was brought to a victorious See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close, the New Testament established a See also:

• FIRM

firm footing within the churches, the " apostolic " rules which thenceforward regulated all the affairs of the church were called into existence, and the ecclesiastical priesthood came to be developed . Within this period also falls that evangelical and legal reaction against the See also:

• POLITICAL

political and See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular tendencies of the church which is known as See also:

• MONTANISM

Montanism . The same Tertullian who had fortified the Catholic church against Gnosticism was none the less anxious to protect it from becoming a political organization . Being unable to reconcile incompatibles, he See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke with the church and became the most powerful representative of Montanism in the West .

Although Tertullian's extant works are See also:

• BATH
• BATH, THOMAS THYNNE
• BATH, WILLIAM

bath numerous and copious, our knowledge of his life is very vague . He cannot have been born much later than about 15o . His activity as a jurist in Rome must fall within the period of See also:

• COMMODUS, LUCIUS AELIUS AURELIUS (161-192)

Commodus; for there is no indication in his writings that he was in Rome in the time of See also:

• MARCUS

Marcus Aurelius, and many passages seem to preclude the supposition . The date of his conversion to Christianity is quite uncertain; there is much in favour of the years between 190 and 195 . Flow See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long he remained in Rome after becoming a Christian, whether he had attained any office in the church before leaving Rome, what was the date of his visit to Greece—on these points also we remain in See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance . It is certain that he was settled in Carthage in the second half of 197, the date of his See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing his Apologeticus and (shortly afterwards) his two books Ad nationes; we also know that he became a presbyter in Carthage and was married . His recognition of the Montanistic prophecy in See also:

• PHRYGIA

Phrygia as a See also:

• WORK

work of God took place in 202-203, at the time when a new persecution broke out . For the next five years it was his See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant endeavour to secure the victory for Montanism within the church ; but in this he became involved more and more deeply in controversy with the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the church in Carthage and especially with its clergy, which had the support of the clergy of Rome . As See also:

• JEROME, JEROME KLAPKA (1859– )
• JEROME, ST (HIERONYMUS, in full EUSEBIUS SOPHRONIUS HIERONYMUS) (c. 340–420)

Jerome writes (De via ill . 53) : Usque ad mediam aetatem presbyter fait ecclesiae Africanae, invidia postea et contumeliis clericorum Romanae ecclesiae ad Montani See also:

• DOGMA (Gr. Sbypa, from b6aeiv, to seem; literally " that which seems, sc. good or true or useful " to any one)

dogma delapsus." On his breach with the Catholic church, probably in 207-208, he became the head of a small Montanist community in Carthage . In this position he continued to labour, to write, and to assail the lax Catholics and their clergy until at least the time of Bishop See also:

• CALIXTUS, GEORG (1586-1656)
• CALIXTUS, or CALLISTUS

Calixtus in the reign of Elagabalus . The See also:

• YEAR

year of his See also:

• DEATH

death is uncertain .

Jerome (ut sup.) says: " Fertur vixisse usque ad decrepitam aetatem." That he returned at last to the bosom of the Catholic church is a mere See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend, the See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive of which is obvious; his adherents after his death continued to maintain themselves as a small community in Carthage . Although he had left the church, his earlier writings continued to be extensively read; and in the 4th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century his works, along with those of Cyprian, were the principal See also:

• READING

reading of Western Christians, until they were superseded by those of Jerome, See also:

• AMBROSE (AMBROISE), AUTPERT (d.' 778)
• AMBROSE (ANDREY SERTIS-KAMENSKIY) (1708-1771)
• AMBROSE (fl. 119o)
• AMBROSE, ISAAC (1604-1663/4)
• AMBROSE, SAINT (c. 340-307)

Ambrose, Augustine and See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory . Jerome has included him in his See also:

• CATALOGUE (a Fr. adaptation of the Gr. KaraXoyos, a register, from Karalyety, to enrol or pick out)

catalogue of Christian " viri See also:

• ILLUSTRES

illustres," but only as a Catholic to whom reference should be made with caution.' The works of Tertullian, on the See also:

• CHRONOLOGY (Gr. xpovo?oyfa, computation of time, xp6vos)

chronology of which a great deal has been written, and which for the most See also:

• PART

part do not admit of being dated with perfect certainty, fall into three classes—the apologetic, defending Christianity against paganism and Judaism; the polemical dogmatic, refuting heresies and heretics; and the ascetic or See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical, dealing with points of morality and church discipline . In point of time also three periods can be readily distinguished, the years 202-203 and 207-208 constituting the divisions . Some of the books he wrote have unfortunately disappeared—in particular the De spectaculis, De baptismo, and De virginibus velandis in Greek; his works in Latin on the same subjects have survived . I . Works dating from before 202-203.—To this class belong the Apologeticus (197) and the two books Ad nationes, De spectaculis, De idololatria, De cultu feminarum Libri II., De testintonio animae (written soon after the Apologeticus), Ad martyres (perhaps the earliest of all), De baptismo haereticorum (now lost), De baptismo, De poenitenha, De oratione (the last three written for catechumens), De patientia, Ad uxorem Libri II., De praescriptione haereticorum, and Adv . Marcionem (in its first form) . The Apologeticus, which in the 3rd century was translated into Greek, is the weightiest work in See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of Christianity of the first two centuries . It disposes of the charges brought against Christians for See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret crimes (See also:

• INCEST (Lat. incestus, unchaste)

incest, &c.) and public offences (contempt of the State See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion and high See also:

• TREASON (Fr. trahison, Lat. traditio)

treason), and asserts the See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute superiority of Christianity as a revealed religion beyond the rivalry of all human systems . 'Compare also the See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment of Hilary and of See also:

• VINCENT (or VINCENTIUS), ST
• VINCENT, GEORGE (1796-1831?)
• VINCENT, MARY ANN (1818-1887)

Vincent of Lerins, Cwnmonit., 24 . Respecting its relation to the Octavius of Minucius Felix much has been written; to the See also:

• PRESENT

present writer it seems unquestionable that Tertullian's work was the later .

Of great moment also is the De praescriptione haereticorum, in which the jurist is more clearly heard than the Christian . It is the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief of the dogmatic or polemical works, and rules the accuser out of See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court at the very opening of the case . The De spectaculis and De idololatria show that Tertullian was already in a certain sense a Montanist before he formally went over to that creed; on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, his De poenitentia proves that his earlier views on church discipline were much more tolerant than his later . To learn something of his Christian See also:

• TEMPER (from Lat. temperare, to mingle or compound in due proportion, to qualify, rule, regulate, to be moderate, formed from tempos, time, fit or due season)

temper we must read the De oratione and the De patientia . The De baptisms is of special See also:

• INTEREST

interest from the archaeological point of view . II . Works written between 202-203 and 207-208.--De virginibus velandis, De See also:

• CORONA (Lat. for " crown ")

corona militis, De fuga in persecutione, De exhortatione castitatis, De scorpiace (a booklet against the Gnostics, whom he compares to scorpions; it is written' in praise of martyrdom), Adversus Hermogenem, De censu animae adv . Hermogenem (lost), Adv . Valentinianos, Adv . Apelleiacos (lost), De paradiso (lost), De fato (lost), De anima (the first See also:

• BOOK

book on Christian See also:

• PSYCHOLOGY
• PSYCHOLOGY (>Guxrl, the mind or soul, and X yos, theory)

psychology), De carne Christi, De resurrectione carnis, and De spe fdelium (lost), were all written after Tertullian had recognized the prophetic claims of the Montanists, but before he had left the church .