See also:

• THEISM
• THEISM (Gr. Beor, god)

THEISM (Gr. Beor, See also:

• GOD

god)  , literally, and in its widest sense, the belief in a See also:

• GOD

god or gods . The See also:

• TERM

term has had several changes of meaning . (1) It appears for the first See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time in 18th-See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century See also:

• ENGLISH

English as an occasional synonym for " See also:

• DEISM (Lat. dens, god)

deism " (q.v.), and therefore as applying to those who believed in God but not in See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity . Later See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism, orthodox and heterodox, upon the English deists inclines to See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge them with the conception of a divine absentee, who See also:

• WOUND (O. Eng. wund,connected with a Teutonic verb, meaning to strive, fight, suffer, seen in O. Eng. winnan, whence Eng. " win ")

wound up the See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine of nature and See also:

• LEFT

left it to run untended . That was the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general 18th-century way of thinking . God was See also:

• APT

apt to be thought of as purely transcendent, not immanent in the See also:

• WORLD

world . (2) In the lgth century See also:

• THEISM
• THEISM (Gr. Beor, god)

theism is generally used of See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive belief in God, either with or without belief in the claim of Christianity to be a See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation, but unassociated with any peculiarities of 18th-century deists . If the word " deism " emphasizes a negative See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element—rejection of See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church Christianity—" theism " generally emphasizes the positive element—belief in God . (3) There is also a third usage . " Theism " was reclaimed by See also:

• THEODORE
• THEODORE (602-690)
• THEODORE (Fedor) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1741–1796)
• THEODORE (Rus. Fedor, or Feodor)

Theodore See also:

• PARKER, JOHN HENRY (1806-1884)
• PARKER, JOSEPH (183o-1902)
• PARKER, MARTIN (c. 1600-c. 1656)
• PARKER, MATTHEW (1504-1575)
• PARKER, SAMUEL (164o-1688)
• PARKER, SIR GILBERT (1862— )
• PARKER, SIR HYDE, BART
• PARKER, THEODORE (1810-186o)

Parker, F . W . See also:

• NEWMAN, FRANCIS WILLIAM (1805-1897)
• NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY (1801-1890)

Newman, Frances See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

Power Cobbe, and others, for their more See also:

• MODERN

modern speculative belief in God, which, while non-See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian or at least non-orthodox, held to an immanent God, continually revealing himself—in the moral consciousness .

The See also:

• AMBIGUITY (Fr. ambiguite, med. Lat. ambiguitas, from Lat. ambiguus, doubtful; ambi, both ways, agere, to drive)

ambiguity cannot be cured . We use the word in this See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article in the second sense.l I . From this point of view theism is a synonym for Natural See also:

• THEOLOGY

Theology, or almost so . But the expression Natural Theology Natural itself has a See also:

• HISTORY

history . (I) The " three theologies "—Theology. recognized by the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• STOICS

Stoics—probably on the See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion of a passage in See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle's See also:

• METAPHYSICS
• METAPHYSICS, or METAPHYSIC (from Gr. /sera, after, d v med, things of nature, lots, i.e. the natural universe)

Metaphysics, xi . 8—are named by St See also:

• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430)
• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (d. c.613)

Augustine (Latinizing the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek terms) Imm . See also:

• KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804)

Kant's distinction of " deist " and theist " may be found in the Critique of Pure See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

Reason, Transcendental See also:

• DIALECTIC, or DIALECTICS

Dialectic," See also:

• BOOK

Book II. chaps. iii. and vii . It is curious, but, unless for the study of Kant, unimportant . 2 Cf . THEOLOGY . Natorp's article quoted there gives the reference to the passage in Aristotle, but does not recognize its connexion with the later Stoical distinction.mythical, natural, and See also:

• CIVIL

civil or See also:

• POLITICAL

political (See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

City of God, iv . 27) .

There is probably a malicious See also:

• ECHO (Gr. I'Xw)

echo in a well-known passage of See also:

• GIBBON
• GIBBON, EDWARD (1737–1794)

Gibbon (Decline and Fall, See also:

• CHAP

chap. ii.): " The various modes of See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship which prevailed in the Roman world were all considered by the See also:

• PEOPLE

people as equally true, by the philosopher as equally false, and by the See also:

• MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistratus, from magister, master, properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office)

magistrate as equally useful." Augustine rejects all three " theologies " as See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

pagan figments, and not a few church writers follow him in this—borrowing his learning without naming him (e.g. the See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant See also:

• GROTIUS, HUGO (1583-1645)

Grotius in his notes on Rom. i . 20) . Yet the natural or See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical theology of the philosophers—in contrast to See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere myths or mere statecraft—seems a straightforward effort to reach faith in God on grounds of scientific reason . It deserves the name, in the modern sense, of Natural Theology . (2) See also:

• RAYMOND, HENRY JARVIS (1820-1869)

Raymond of Sabunde's See also:

• LIBER

Liber naturae sive Creaturarum (1434–36) bears also the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title Theologia Naturalis—but not from the author's own See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand,3 though his introduction to the book in question, the See also:

• PROLOGUE (from Gr. 7rpo, before, and Myer, a word)

Prologue, put upon the See also:

• INDEX

Index at See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome for its daring, describes the " book of nature " as " connatural to us," in contrast with the " super-natural" book, the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible, which belongs to the clerics . Laymen may read the book of nature, and See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

Man himself is the most important " See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf " in it . Raymond attempts to demonstrate the whole of church theology upon principles of reason . That is a task quite beyond what is generally recognized as Natural Theology . (3) With See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis See also:

• BACON
• BACON (through the O. Fr. bacon, Low Lat. baco, from a Teutonic word cognate with " back," e.g. O. H. Ger. pacho, M. H. Ger. backe, buttock, flitch of bacon)
• BACON, FRANCIS (BARON VERULAM, VISCOUNT ST ALBANS) (1561-1626)
• BACON, JOHN (1740–1799)
• BACON, LEONARD (1802–1881)
• BACON, ROGER (c. 1214-c. 1294)
• BACON, SIR NICHOLAS (1509-1579)

Bacon (See also:

• ADVANCEMENT

Advancement of Learning, 16os) the expression Natural Theology emerges in what has become the modern sense—as See also:

• STANDING

standing for a See also:

• PART

part of Christian theology, attainable by reason, and contrasted by most theologians with the " mysteries " of faith (Bacon uses that term too) on the principles of See also:

• ALBERT
• ALBERT (1490'1545)
• ALBERT (149o-1568)
• ALBERT (1522–1557)
• ALBERT (FRANCIS CHARLES AUGUSTUS ALBERT EMMANUEL) (1819—1861)
• ALBERT (FRIEDRICH RUDOLF ALBRECHT)
• ALBERT, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS
• ALBERT, MADAME (c. 2805—2846)

Albert the See also:

• GREAT

Great and See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• AQUINAS, THOMAS [Thomas of AQUIN or AQUINO], (c 1227--1274)

Aquinas (see See also:

• APOLOGETICS

APOLOGETICS) . [It is not clear that Bacon is the first to use the term in the now accepted sense; but he and See also:

• THEOPHILUS

Theophilus Raynaudus, S . J., in his Theologia Naturalis (1622), of which there is a copy in the Bodleian, must at least be among the first in their respective communions to do so . Raynaudus's authorities, in favour of the recognition of a natural theology and against it, do not, so far as the See also:

• PRESENT

present writer has been able to consult them, use the expression .

So too H . See also:

• ALSTED, JOHANN HEINRICH (1588—1638)

Alsted, an early Protestant writer on Natural Theology (in his Methodus Theologiae, 1611, and in later See also:

• WORKS

works), defines it as moderns do—some of the contents of his Natural Theology are fantastic enough—and his authorities, again so far as consulted, differ upon the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to be assigned to Natural Theology within a See also:

• SYSTEM

system of study, but do not employ the term.] In later times the expression is See also:

• COMMON

common; it is used e.g. by See also:

• LOCKE, GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1791–1855)
• LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704)
• LOCKE, MATTHEW (c. 1630-1677)

Locke, See also:

• LEIBNITZ (LEIBNIZ), GOTTFRIED WILHELM

Leibnitz and See also:

• WOLFF (less correctly WOLF), CHRISTIAN (1679-1754)
• WOLFF, CASPAR FRIEDRICH (1733-1794)
• WOLFF, JOSEPH (1795–1862)

Wolff . Wolff's See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence made the usage habitual,4 though See also:

• SCHLEIERMACHER, FRIEDRICH DANIEL ERNST (1768-1834)

Schleiermacher and See also:

• RITSCHL, ALBRECHT (1822-1889)
• RITSCHL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1806-1876)

Ritschl, like the Socinians earlier, deny the existence of a natural theology . Following the See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text and See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation 5 of Aristotle's Roman Metaphysics, it is believed that Aristotle already See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

catholic identified metaphysics with a theology: accordingly grouping. modern Roman Catholic learning, which owes a great See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt to Aristotle through the schoolmen, includes Natural Theology in See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy, not in theology properly so called . With Natorp's article W . See also:

• WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL (1823— )
• WALLACE, LEWIS [LEW] (1827—1905)
• WALLACE, SIR RICHARD
• WALLACE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1270-1305)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM (1768-1843)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM VINCENT (1814-1865)

Wallace's See also:

• GIFFORD, ROBERT SWAIN (184o—19o5)
• GIFFORD, SANDFORD ROBINSON (1823–188o)
• GIFFORD, WILLIAM (1756-1826)

Gifford Lecture,6 chap. i., may also be consulted; but Wallace does not distinguish the unusual sense which the term bears as applied to Raymond's book . R . See also:

• FLINT
• FLINT, AUSTIN (1812-1886)
• FLINT, or FLTNTSHTRE (sir Gallestr)
• FLINT, ROBERT (1838- )
• FLINT, TIMOTHY (1780-1840)

Flint has remarked that Natural Theology ought not merely to prove the being of God, but to give a full systematic view of what (it is contended) can be learned of theological truth from the " See also:

• LIGHT

light of nature " (St Augustine, and See See also:

• ART

art . " Raimundus Sabiende " by Schaarschmidt in See also:

• HERZOG, HANS (1819–1894)
• HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB (1805-1882)

Herzog-Hauck, Realencyhlopadie (ed . 1905) . At this point we must also See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call to mind the wide currency given to the term theology by See also:

• ABELARD, PETER (1079-1142)

Abelard, and his editors or copyists . 4 A .

See also:

• HARNACK, ADOLF (1851– )

Harnack and some others use the expression in a wider sense . Any supposed principles (even if not worked out into a system of inferences) used as ready-made clues for the study and interpretation of Christianity are described by this school as natural theology (cf . THEOLOGY) . 5 Challenged by Natorp; see THEOLOGY . e Published in Lectures and Essays . theologians generally after him) . The name " theism " makes that requirement less emphatic (see below) . Another kindred term is " Natural See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Religion." We meet with this in the titles of two Latin works' by See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German authors Natural in reply to See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord See also:

• HERBERT (FAMILY)
• HERBERT, GEORGE (1593-1633)
• HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM
• HERBERT, SIR THOMAS (1606-1682)

Herbert of Cherbury . They use it Religion. with strong condemnation, from the standpoint of rigorous Christian orthodoxy; but it comes into See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England within very few years upon the Christian See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side--religion against irreligion—in See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

Bishop See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• WILKINS, GEORGE (ii. 1607)
• WILKINS, JOHN (1614-1672)
• WILKINS, MARY ELEANOR (1862– )
• WILKINS, SIR CHARLES (1749?-1836)

Wilkins's Principles and Duties of Natural Religion (1678) . The author died 1672, and left the book unfinished; but the See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language of the title occurs in the first See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence; so it is undoubtedly Wilkins's, as well as sanctioned by his editor and connexion through See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage, See also:

• TILLOTSON, JOHN (1630-1694)

Tillotson, afterwards the See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

archbishop . We meet with " Natural Religion " again in See also:

• SAMUEL

Samuel See also:

• CLARKE, ADAM (1762?—1832)
• CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN (1787-1877)
• CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL (1769–1822)
• CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN (1810–1888)
• CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER (1833–1899)
• CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP (1846–1881)
• CLARKE, MARY ANNE (c.1776–1852)
• CLARKE, SAMUEL (1675–1729)
• CLARKE, SIR ANDREW (1824-1902)
• CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE (1841– )
• CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS (1866- )
• CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE (1798-1878)

Clarke's works, and notably in Bishop See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph See also:

• BUTLER
• BUTLER (or BOTELER), SAMUEL (1612–168o)
• BUTLER (through the O. Fr. bouteillier, from the Late Lat. buticularius, buticula, a bottle)
• BUTLER, ALBAN (1710-1773)
• BUTLER, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1818-1893)
• BUTLER, CHARLES (1750–1832)
• BUTLER, GEORGE (1774-1853)
• BUTLER, JOSEPH (1692-1752)
• BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY (1862– )
• BUTLER, SAMUEL (1774-1839)
• BUTLER, SAMUEL (1835-1902)
• BUTLER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS (1838– )
• BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER (1814-1848)

Butler's See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

Analogy (1736) . Thus, as employed by most writers, " Natural Religion " connotes See also:

• NEUTRALITY

neutrality or even friendliness towards Christianity; just as is the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case with theism in sense (2), or with Natural Theology .

" Deist," or sometimes " theist " in sense (1), or Naturalist, is a term of reprobation with English 18th-century apologists, but not " Natural Religion." If there is any difference between " theism " or " Natural Theo-logy " on the one hand, and Natural Religion on the other, it is to be found in the more See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character attaching to natural " religion." While See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans i . 19 and 20 (yet cf . Acts xiv . 17, xvii . 24, &c.) is the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main New Testament passage which seems to recognize a Natural Theology, Rom. ii . 14, 15 may be said to assert Natural Religion . When the expression Natural Theology comes to the front once more with See also:

• ARCHDEACON (Lat. archidiaconus, Gr. &oxt3tauovor)

Archdeacon W . See also:

• PALEY, FREDERICK APTHORP (1815-1888)
• PALEY, WILLIAM (1743-1805)

Paley (1802), this is a sort of after-See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth or See also:

• ANACHRONISM (from ava, back, and xpovor, time)

anachronism.2 Natural See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

Law.—We do not pretend that Law of Nature—the jurist's term, not of course that of inductive See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science—is Natural strictly a synonym for theism . But it is a cognate Law. conception, of great importance historically, bearing the marks of the Stoic See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of " nature," and helping to turn men's minds towards a " natural " theology . A pantheist may believe in Law of Nature and go no further; a theist who accepts Law of Nature has a large See also:

• INSTALMENT (for earlier stallment or estallment, from Fr. estaler, to fix, arrange; the change is probably due to the influence of the verb " install ")

instalment of natural theology ready made to his hand; including an idealist, or else an intuitionalist, See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme of See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

ethics . Both See also:

• JUS

jus naturale and lex naturalis are as early as See also:

• CICERO

Cicero, and the jus gentium of the Roman lawyers is earlier still . See also:

• AMBROSE (AMBROISE), AUTPERT (d.' 778)
• AMBROSE (ANDREY SERTIS-KAMENSKIY) (1708-1771)
• AMBROSE (fl. 119o)
• AMBROSE, ISAAC (1604-1663/4)
• AMBROSE, SAINT (c. 340-307)

Ambrose of See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan (Epistles ix .

71) quotes Romans ii . 14, 15—the passage already referred to, under " Natural Religion "—as asserting " Natural Law "; St See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul's words suggest that See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of thought and may conceivably have been suggested by it . J . G . See also:

• RITCHIE, CHARLES THOMSON RITCHIE, 1ST BARON (1838-1906)
• RITCHIE, DAVID GEORGE (1853-1903)

Ritchie's Natural Rights, from the point of view of a very hostile (evolutionary) See also:

• IDEALISM (from Gr. i5Ea, archetype or model, through been urged of the truth of its point of view is the persistency Fr. idealisme)

idealism, sketches the early history of the phrase Natural Law.3 The philosopher in Abelard's Dialogus inter Judaeum Philosophunz et Christianum expects to be saved ex sola lege naturali; here " law of nature " is fully See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to Natural Religion, and the word sola sets it in contrast with Christianity . Not to speak of the canonists, Thomas Aquinas gives natural law an important place; while Melancthon, See also:

• DRAWING

drawing from Aquinas, gives it an entrance into Protestant thought . See also:

• ZWINGLI, HULDREICH (1484—1531)

Zwingli and See also:

• CALVIN, JOHN (1509-1564)

Calvin on the other hand prefer the positive view of law as instituted by God far back in history in the days of the Old See also:

• COVENANT
• COVENANT (an O. Fr. form, later convenant, from convenir, to agree, Lat. convenire)

Covenant; but, when exegesis or controversy puts pressure upon them, they fall into See also:

• LINE

line and reiterate the See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to a Natural Law . See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard See also:

• HOOKER, JOSEPH (1814–1879)
• HOOKER, RICHARD (1553-1600)
• HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH DALTON (1817— English botanist and traveller, second son of the famous botanist Sir W.J.Hooker, was born on the 3oth of June 1817, at Halesworth, Suffolk. He was educated at Glasgow University, and almost immediately after taking his M.
• HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON (1785–1865)
• HOOKER, THOMAS (1586–1647)

Hooker, again with traces of Aquinas, uses the conception as a weapon against See also:

• PURITANISM (Lat. puritas, purity)

Puritanism, with its aggressive See also:

• POSITIVISM (derived from ponere, whence positus, that which is laid down, certain)

positivism of scriptural See also:

• PRECEPT (Lat. praeceptum, a rule, from praecipere, literally to take beforehand, to give rules, instructions or orders)

precept . Natural Law, he claims, leaves See also:

• ROOM

room for discretionary arrangements like See also:

• EPISCOPACY (from Late Lat. episcopatus, the office of a bishop, episcopas)

episcopacy; Scripture does not mean to supersede the light of reason . It is intelligible that Locke (See also:

• TREATISES

Treatises of Civil See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

Government) should have a relish in quoting Hooker against the divine-right royalism of See also:

• SIR

Sir John See also:

• FILMER, SIR ROBERT (d. 1653)

Filmer; but in Locke there is already ' Recorded in J . G . See also:

• WALCH, JOHANN GEORG (1693-1775)

Walch's Bibliotheca Theologica Selecta (1751) .

2 See Wallace's Gifford Lecture . 3 For the influence of that conception in theology, especially through the See also:

• MEDIUM

medium of Isidore of See also:

• SEVILLE
• SEVILLE (Span. Sevilla, Lat. Ispalis or Hispalis, Moorish Ishbiliya)

Seville, see successive chapters in A . J . See also:

• CARLYLE, ALEXANDER (1722-1805)
• CARLYLE, JOSEPH DACRE (1759-18o4)
• CARLYLE, THOMAS (1795-1881)

Carlyle's Inst. of Mediaeval Political Thought in the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West, vol i.a revival of belief in the (beau-ideal) " See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state " of nature and a growing emphasis upon natural rights; ideas which, heralded by See also:

• ROUSSEAU, JACQUES (1633-1693)
• ROUSSEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1671-1741)
• ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778)
• ROUSSEAU, PIERRE ETIENNE THEODORE (1812–1867); French painter of the Barbizon school, was born in Paris on the 15th of April 1812, of a bourgeois family which included one or two artists. At first he received a business training, but soon displayed aptitu

Rousseau, echoed See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the world in the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French Revolution . Locke had spent some years in See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland, the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country of Grotius, who, with help from other great lawyers, and under a misapprehension as to the meaning of the Roman jus gentium, shaped modern concepts of See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international law by an appeal to law of nature.' This moral ideal rendered considerable services to See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization; we must not forget these, in the offence which the myth of a See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• GOLDEN

golden See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age may offer to our historic sense . The See also:

• KERNEL (O.E. cyrnel, a diminutive of " corn," seed, grain)

kernel is See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound enough though the husk is a poor thing . Finally, it is of some See also:

• INTEREST

interest to See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note that Chr . Wolff, in the intervals of his chequered theological career, lectured and wrote as a jurist upon the Law of Nature . " Philosophy of religion " is the modern term . It again is not exactly a synonym, though more nearly so than the last . The new phrase indicates that we are to approach philosothe thought of God through a study of religious beliefs phy of and practices; " theism " tended to make God a religion. purely scientific inference from the facts of nature . But " philosophy of religion " can be construed in many different ways .

An investigator, pledging himself to no beliefs—even perhaps one who definitely disbelieves and rejects theism—may yet interest himself in tracking out the See also:

• PSYCHOLOGY
• PSYCHOLOGY (>Guxrl, the mind or soul, and X yos, theory)

psychology of religion . Or a philosopher like See also:

• HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1770-1831)

Hegel, armed with a metaphysical theory, may descend upon the facts of religion and interpret them in its light, till they almost lose their See also:

• ORIGINAL

original significance, which we might provisionally define as consisting in this, that the believer in any religion finds himself helped or (as he claims) saved by it . Again, we must not be misled by verbal idiosyncrasies . What See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James See also:

• MARTINEAU, HARRIET (1802-1876)
• MARTINEAU, JAMES (1805-1900)

Martineau calls A Study of Religion is really in the main a re-statement of old theistic arguments.5 [Wallace's Gifford Lecture may be consulted upon this phrase also . He observes with truth that Natural Theology, if you remove from it the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of subordination to Christianity as (claiming to be) a See also:

• SPECIAL

special revelation, tends to pass into a philosophy of religion . But it does not follow that the new standpoint involves what .Wallace seems to hint, though he conceals his meaning behind complimentary See also:

• RHETORIC (Gr. psroperctj TEXvq, the art of the orator)

rhetoric—rejection of church Christianity . A . M . See also:

• FAIRBAIRN, ANDREW MARTIN (1838- )
• FAIRBAIRN, SIR WILLIAM

Fairbairn's Phil. of the Christian Religion shows by its very title that an effort is being made to combine great confidence in metaphysics with strong belief in the uniqueness of Christianity; and the effort will be found to characterize all Fairbairn's See also:

• WORK

work . Possibly, See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller study of religions may help theologians to formulate the imperial claims of Christianity more happily than in the dry contrast between what is " revealed " and what is " natural." But that contrast is traditional; and it is implied in the ordinary theological usage of such phrases as " natural theology " or " natural religion " and almost of " theism."] See also:

• COMPARATIVE

Comparative religion, or, as some call it, history of religion, is yet another modern study, closely akin to the last discussed, although more strictly confined to registering the Comparasequence of religious phenomena and less disposed tine Re- towards criticizing religions or towards ranking them liglm in an See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of merit . We cannot, therefore, call it precisely synonymous with theism . And yet theism—or monotheism—constitutes a special See also:

• LOCUS (Lat. for " place "; in Gr. rinros)

locus in the history of religion .

The historian observes and records, in different lands and ages, the rise or explicit utterance of belief in one God . Some uncertainty may be See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt whether See also:

• PANTHEISM (Gr. 7rav, all, Oeos, god)

pantheism should See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank as a theism . Is unity the main point ? Or is not See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality rather of See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime importance, though doubtless pre-supposing unity ? (Usage does not allow us to rank polytheism as a form of theism.) E . Troeltsch, Kultur der Gegenwart, Tell I . See also:

• ABT, FRANZ (1819-1885)

Abt . 4, p . 470, finds that the See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom of the priests, in one See also:

• LAND

land after another, rises to the thought of divine unity . That suggests pantheism, the usual form of such See also:

• ESOTERIC

esoteric wisdom . See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor T . W .

Rhys Davids (See also:

• AMERICAN

American Lectures, p . 37) sums up that, when the name of an earlier deity is 4 See (with writers already mentioned) Sir H . See also:

• MAINE
• MAINE, ANNE LOUISE BENEDICTE DE BOURBON
• MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822–1888)

Maine's See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

Ancient Law . 5 See his Introduction . attached to the See also:

• OBJECT

object of supreme worship, monotheism proper is approached; while, when a new thought-construction is put in the supreme place, there is a tendency rather towards See also:

• PAN (" pasturer ")
• PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open)

pan-theism . So far as this is true, theism (proper) would seem to be an See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident of language . There is a further problem; whether monotheism is of very early occurrence . Belief in a primitive See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical revelation, once universal among Christians, has almost disappeared; but belief in a very early and highly moral theism is stoutly defended, chiefly on Australian See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence, by See also:

• ANDREW (Gr. 'AvBp4as, manly)
• ANDREW, JOHN ALBION (1818-1867)

Andrew See also:

• LANG, ANDREW (1844— )
• LANG, KARL HEINRICH, RITTER VON (1764-1835)

Lang (The Making of Religion and later works) . If Lang is right, " primitive " peoples See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew typical theistic inferences, and argued to God from nature and from See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

conscience, though without displacing other types of religious belief and practice . In many regions--See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, Babylonia, &c.—individual investigators of the great religions have thought they found traces of an early—one hesitates to write, of a " primitive "—monotheism . Perhaps J . See also:

• LEGGE
• LEGGE, JAMES (1815-1897)

Legge, who finds true theism at the See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn of See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese history, is the most authoritative representative of such views .

Passing to later times, we can See also:

• WATCH (in O. Eng. wcecce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake)

watch a theory of monotheism rising, and dying down again, during what our scholars distin-See also:

• BRAHMAN

Brahman guish as the Brahmanical See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of See also:

• INDIAN

Indian religion. theism . The supreme god, Isvara, has the See also:

• PERSONAL

personal name Prajapati, Visvakarman or some other . But this theism is lifeless—a " See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale and shallow deism, which See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India has often confessed with the lips, but which has never won the See also:

• HOMAGE (from homo, through the Low Lat. hominaticum, which occurs in a document of 1035)

homage of her See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart.''' The thought of India is upon the side of pan-theism . Again, the heretical See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king Amenophis IV . Egyptian or Akhenaton, one of the sovereigns to whose govern- ment the celebrated Tell el-Amarna letters from See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine were addressed, was a zealous See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion of the exclusive claims of the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun-disk God, Ra; but his policy died with him . In Babylonia a mutilated inscription printed by See also:

• BABYLON (mod. Hillah)

Babylon- T . Pinches (Transactions of See also:

• VICTORIA
• VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO DA (C. I540-C. 1613)
• VICTORIA [ALEXANDRINA VICTORIA]

Victoria See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

Institute, vol . 28), ian. identifying (so far as preserved) thirteen other Gods with See also:

• MARDUK (Bib'. MERODACH2)

Marduk, has been hailed by See also:

• FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836— )

Friedrich See also:

• DELITZSCH
• DELITZSCH, FRANZ (1813–1890)

Delitzsch (See also:

• BABEL

Babel and Babel) as the great See also:

• FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. fontana, from ions, a spring)

fountain-See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of monotheism, and has influenced the bold if highly See also:

• PRECARIOUS

precarious conjectures of H . Winckler.2 Of more assured importance was the Zoroastrian faith—" pure Zoroas- moral See also:

• DUALISM (from rare Lat. dualis, containing two, from duo)

dualism if not theism " (L . H . See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

Mills)—which Irian. proved its zeal by persecutions . But later times nearly strangled Zoroastrian piety, not only by See also:

• LAWS

laws of See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual purity but also by newly evolved secondary deities—personified attributes, and the like .

So that here again theism, if theism it was, did not continue in strength . If we understand by theism not See also:

• SIMPLE

simple belief in a divine unity, but such faith in one divine See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person as will constitute the basis for a popular religion, then—unless we allow a doubtful exception in Zoroastrianism—we must agree with those historians of religion who affirm that the world has known only a single living monotheism, viz. that of the Old Testament, along with what are historically the daughter faiths, Christianity and See also:

• ISLAM

Islam . The theist believes that he can further trace many incomplete workings of the monothesitic See also:

• INSTINCT

instinct in the history of religion . /ncom- Not only is it true, as A . Menzies observes, that plete " Reason knows only God, not Gods "; if we take theistic religion as saving help, no worshipper possesses re-impulses. ligion in full See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security until he has gone straight to the fountain-head, and gained the friendship of the God of Gods . Indian Vedic henotheism (otherwise called kathenotheism);3 Semitic monolatry, so important as the probable starting-point of religious development in See also:

• ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel; the Greek use of " See also:

• ZEUS

Zeus " almost as we say " God "—even the See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to arrange deities in a monarchical See also:

• PANTHEON (Lat. pantheum or pantheon; Gr. srav& ov, all-holy, from re, s, all, and Oeor god)

pantheon, all show the tendency, though it so seldom attains a real victory . r A . See also:

• BARTH
• BARTH, HEINRICH (1821–1865)
• BARTH, KASPAR VON (1587-1658)

Barth, Religions of India, Eng. trans., pp . 29, 30, 69 . We may probably extend this hostile See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment to the theism of the modern Samaj-es . 2 The centralizing of worship at Babylon by its last king, Nabonidos, hardly seems to have amounted to monotheism . t The two terms are explicitly identified by F .

Max See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller, their inventor (e.g . Hibbert Lectures, chap. vi. p . 271) . II . We have already suggested that theism covers more ground than the name at first may suggest . It can never quite confine See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to the problem of the being of God . Where suborai-God is believed in at all, it is believed that upon God Hate everything else depends . With the thought of God, mesas of accordingly, there is correlated a modification in theism. thoughts upon all other subjects; and a full system of theism must discourse " Of God, of the world, of the Soul, " like See also:

• MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST
• MATTHEW, ST (MaOOaior or MarOaIos, probably a shortened form of the Hebrew equivalent to Theodorus)
• MATTHEW, TOBIAS

Matthew See also:

• ARNOLD
• ARNOLD, BENEDICT (1741-1801)
• ARNOLD, GOTTFRIED (1666-1714)
• ARNOLD, MATTHEW (1822-1888)
• ARNOLD, SAMUEL (1740--18o2)
• ARNOLD, SIR EDWIN (1832-1904)
• ARNOLD, THOMAS (1745-1842)

Arnold's See also:

• MOSES (Gr. Mwvo c, Mcoo-i3s)
• MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF

Moses . In other words there must be doctrines regarding See also:

• MATTER

matter and mind, the world and the self, as well as regarding that See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

Absolute Being who is believed to exist behind both, revealing Himself through them . This way of approaching theism is illustrated in A . C . See also:

• FRASER
• FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1819– )
• FRASER, JAMES (1818-1885)
• FRASER, JAMES BAILLIE (1783--1856)
• FRASER, SIR WILLIAM AUGUSTUS

Fraser's Gifford Lectures, or in earlier times in the writings of Christian Wolff, whose sciences, according to the slightly different nomenclature which Kant imposed on them, were " rational psychology," " rational cosmology," and " rational theology." Kant swept away, so far as his influence extended, such " dogmatic metaphysics " and the old-fashioned theism which it constituted or included; but Kant himself introduced, in his own more sceptical yet also more moral type of theistic doctrine, a new trichotomy—God, Freedom, See also:

• IMMORTALITY (Lat. in-, not, mortalis, mortal, from mors, death)

Immortality, the three " postulates " of the Kant's " practical reason." It is tempting to try to correlate "posh:- the members of this triad with the individual members fates." of the older triad .

But that would only mislead us; See also:

• FREE

free will and immortality are really predicates ascribed—on whatever grounds—to the soul; and it is natural that in theism the soul of man should be a topic second in importance only to God Himself . Every theistic system, or almost every one, makes See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision in some way for Kant's three postulates . Accordingly, even in a hurried survey of the history of theism, we must try to question the systems we are reviewing upon their attitude towards human freedom and immortality, as well as upon their doctrine of God . Sometimes it will be found that free will is asserted as an assured fact, as a datum, Free and so as a ground of inference to God . But some- will . times free will is rather a probandum . In Christian theology, much labour has been spent upon vindicating man's freedom against God's intrusion, or upon blotting out human power in order to leave room for the divine . Theism si'ggests at the very outset that we should rather expect to find a. correlation between the two . If there is a God at all, he must be thought of as the See also:

• GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt " guarantie " or " guaranty "; an O. Fr. form of " warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as wahren, to defend or make safe and binding)

guarantee of freedom in man and as the See also:

• PLEDGE

pledge of his immortality . The mention of Christian theology may remind us that, for the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of theists in See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval and modern times, theism proper has ranked only as a secondary wisdom . It simpiinis possible for Christians to work out natural theology cation of in See also:

• SEPARATE

separate detail; but we cannot wonder if they theism. rarely attempt the task, believing as they do that they have a fuller revelation of religious truth elsewhere . In point of fact, as we look to history, we find that theism has been much simplified and cut down .

First of all, attention has been concentrated upon God . One does not suggest that this concentration was an See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error., On the contrary, even Christian theology makes at least theeffort to show that the thought of God regulates the whole system of belief . Yet while an adequate doctrine of God may See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle everything in principle, we ought to remember that there are applications of the principle, apart from which we do not see our way clearly . As a second step in concentration, attention is almost confined to the question " Does God exist ? " and to theistic proofs as answering " Yes." The 'further question " What is God?" is slurred, as if there could be no two opinions regarding that; whereas in truth there are two See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred opinions . A . B . See also:

• BRUCE
• BRUCE, ALEXANDER BALMAIN (1831-1899)
• BRUCE, JAMES (1930-1794)
• BRUCE, MICHAEL (1746-1767)

Bruce feels this so strongly that the natural theology See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of his Apologetics entirely omits the question " Does God exist?" in favour of the question " What is God?" Perhaps that is equally one-sided . When we do find theism dealing with the question " What is God?" it tends to See also:

• BORROW, GEORGE HENRY (18o3-1881)

borrow from scholastic 'dorms of Christian theology the scheme of Being and Attributes (see e.g . Wolff) . But such a scheme gives at best an See also:

• EXTERNAL

external preliminary description of the object to which it is applied.' So our See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of material narrows down in the ordinary handling to a single question . God, the world, the soul, free will, immortality, optimism; What then is God ?

All these questions, and perhaps others, tend t