See also:

• THEISM
• THEISM (Gr. Beor, god)

THEISM (Gr. Beor, See also:

• GOD

god)  , literally, and in its widest sense, the belief in a See also:

• GOD

god or gods . The See also:

• TERM

term has had several changes of meaning . (1) It appears for the first See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time in 18th-See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century See also:

• ENGLISH

English as an occasional synonym for " See also:

• DEISM (Lat. dens, god)

deism " (q.v.), and therefore as applying to those who believed in God but not in See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity . Later See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism, orthodox and heterodox, upon the English deists inclines to See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge them with the conception of a divine absentee, who See also:

• WOUND (O. Eng. wund,connected with a Teutonic verb, meaning to strive, fight, suffer, seen in O. Eng. winnan, whence Eng. " win ")

wound up the See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine of nature and See also:

• LEFT

left it to run untended . That was the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general 18th-century way of thinking . God was See also:

• APT

apt to be thought of as purely transcendent, not immanent in the See also:

• WORLD

world . (2) In the lgth century See also:

• THEISM
• THEISM (Gr. Beor, god)

theism is generally used of See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive belief in God, either with or without belief in the claim of Christianity to be a See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation, but unassociated with any peculiarities of 18th-century deists . If the word " deism " emphasizes a negative See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element—rejection of See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church Christianity—" theism " generally emphasizes the positive element—belief in God . (3) There is also a third usage . " Theism " was reclaimed by See also:

• THEODORE
• THEODORE (602-690)
• THEODORE (Fedor) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1741–1796)
• THEODORE (Rus. Fedor, or Feodor)

Theodore See also:

• PARKER, JOHN HENRY (1806-1884)
• PARKER, JOSEPH (183o-1902)
• PARKER, MARTIN (c. 1600-c. 1656)
• PARKER, MATTHEW (1504-1575)
• PARKER, SAMUEL (164o-1688)
• PARKER, SIR GILBERT (1862— )
• PARKER, SIR HYDE, BART
• PARKER, THEODORE (1810-186o)

Parker, F . W . See also:

• NEWMAN, FRANCIS WILLIAM (1805-1897)
• NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY (1801-1890)

Newman, Frances See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

Power Cobbe, and others, for their more See also:

• MODERN

modern speculative belief in God, which, while non-See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian or at least non-orthodox, held to an immanent God, continually revealing himself—in the moral consciousness .

The See also:

• AMBIGUITY (Fr. ambiguite, med. Lat. ambiguitas, from Lat. ambiguus, doubtful; ambi, both ways, agere, to drive)

ambiguity cannot be cured . We use the word in this See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article in the second sense.l I . From this point of view theism is a synonym for Natural See also:

• THEOLOGY

Theology, or almost so . But the expression Natural Theology Natural itself has a See also:

• HISTORY

history . (I) The " three theologies "—Theology. recognized by the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• STOICS

Stoics—probably on the See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion of a passage in See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle's See also:

• METAPHYSICS
• METAPHYSICS, or METAPHYSIC (from Gr. /sera, after, d v med, things of nature, lots, i.e. the natural universe)

Metaphysics, xi . 8—are named by St See also:

• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430)
• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (d. c.613)

Augustine (Latinizing the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek terms) Imm . See also:

• KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804)

Kant's distinction of " deist " and theist " may be found in the Critique of Pure See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

Reason, Transcendental See also:

• DIALECTIC, or DIALECTICS

Dialectic," See also:

• BOOK

Book II. chaps. iii. and vii . It is curious, but, unless for the study of Kant, unimportant . 2 Cf . THEOLOGY . Natorp's article quoted there gives the reference to the passage in Aristotle, but does not recognize its connexion with the later Stoical distinction.mythical, natural, and See also:

• CIVIL

civil or See also:

• POLITICAL

political (See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

City of God, iv . 27) .

There is probably a malicious See also:

• ECHO (Gr. I'Xw)

echo in a well-known passage of See also:

• GIBBON
• GIBBON, EDWARD (1737–1794)

Gibbon (Decline and Fall, See also:

• CHAP

chap. ii.): " The various modes of See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship which prevailed in the Roman world were all considered by the See also:

• PEOPLE

people as equally true, by the philosopher as equally false, and by the See also:

• MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistratus, from magister, master, properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office)

magistrate as equally useful." Augustine rejects all three " theologies " as See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

pagan figments, and not a few church writers follow him in this—borrowing his learning without naming him (e.g. the See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant See also:

• GROTIUS, HUGO (1583-1645)

Grotius in his notes on Rom. i . 20) . Yet the natural or See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical theology of the philosophers—in contrast to See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere myths or mere statecraft—seems a straightforward effort to reach faith in God on grounds of scientific reason . It deserves the name, in the modern sense, of Natural Theology . (2) See also:

• RAYMOND, HENRY JARVIS (1820-1869)

Raymond of Sabunde's See also:

• LIBER

Liber naturae sive Creaturarum (1434–36) bears also the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title Theologia Naturalis—but not from the author's own See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand,3 though his introduction to the book in question, the See also:

• PROLOGUE (from Gr. 7rpo, before, and Myer, a word)

Prologue, put upon the See also:

• INDEX

Index at See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome for its daring, describes the " book of nature " as " connatural to us," in contrast with the " super-natural" book, the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible, which belongs to the clerics . Laymen may read the book of nature, and See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

Man himself is the most important " See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf " in it . Raymond attempts to demonstrate the whole of church theology upon principles of reason . That is a task quite beyond what is generally recognized as Natural Theology . (3) With See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis See also:

• BACON
• BACON (through the O. Fr. bacon, Low Lat. baco, from a Teutonic word cognate with " back," e.g. O. H. Ger. pacho, M. H. Ger. backe, buttock, flitch of bacon)
• BACON, FRANCIS (BARON VERULAM, VISCOUNT ST ALBANS) (1561-1626)
• BACON, JOHN (1740–1799)
• BACON, LEONARD (1802–1881)
• BACON, ROGER (c. 1214-c. 1294)
• BACON, SIR NICHOLAS (1509-1579)

Bacon (See also:

• ADVANCEMENT

Advancement of Learning, 16os) the expression Natural Theology emerges in what has become the modern sense—as See also:

• STANDING

standing for a See also:

• PART

part of Christian theology, attainable by reason, and contrasted by most theologians with the " mysteries " of faith (Bacon uses that term too) on the principles of See also:

• ALBERT
• ALBERT (1490'1545)
• ALBERT (149o-1568)
• ALBERT (1522–1557)
• ALBERT (FRANCIS CHARLES AUGUSTUS ALBERT EMMANUEL) (1819—1861)
• ALBERT (FRIEDRICH RUDOLF ALBRECHT)
• ALBERT, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS
• ALBERT, MADAME (c. 2805—2846)

Albert the See also:

• GREAT

Great and See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• AQUINAS, THOMAS [Thomas of AQUIN or AQUINO], (c 1227--1274)

Aquinas (see See also:

• APOLOGETICS

APOLOGETICS) . [It is not clear that Bacon is the first to use the term in the now accepted sense; but he and See also:

• THEOPHILUS

Theophilus Raynaudus, S . J., in his Theologia Naturalis (1622), of which there is a copy in the Bodleian, must at least be among the first in their respective communions to do so . Raynaudus's authorities, in favour of the recognition of a natural theology and against it, do not, so far as the See also:

• PRESENT

present writer has been able to consult them, use the expression .

So too H . See also:

• ALSTED, JOHANN HEINRICH (1588—1638)

Alsted, an early Protestant writer on Natural Theology (in his Methodus Theologiae, 1611, and in later See also:

• WORKS

works), defines it as moderns do—some of the contents of his Natural Theology are fantastic enough—and his authorities, again so far as consulted, differ upon the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to be assigned to Natural Theology within a See also:

• SYSTEM

system of study, but do not employ the term.] In later times the expression is See also:

• COMMON

common; it is used e.g. by See also:

• LOCKE, GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1791–1855)
• LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704)
• LOCKE, MATTHEW (c. 1630-1677)

Locke, See also:

• LEIBNITZ (LEIBNIZ), GOTTFRIED WILHELM

Leibnitz and See also:

• WOLFF (less correctly WOLF), CHRISTIAN (1679-1754)
• WOLFF, CASPAR FRIEDRICH (1733-1794)
• WOLFF, JOSEPH (1795–1862)

Wolff . Wolff's See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence made the usage habitual,4 though See also:

• SCHLEIERMACHER, FRIEDRICH DANIEL ERNST (1768-1834)

Schleiermacher and See also:

• RITSCHL, ALBRECHT (1822-1889)
• RITSCHL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1806-1876)

Ritschl, like the Socinians earlier, deny the existence of a natural theology . Following the See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text and See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation 5 of Aristotle's Roman Metaphysics, it is believed that Aristotle already See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

catholic identified metaphysics with a theology: accordingly grouping. modern Roman Catholic learning, which owes a great See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt to Aristotle through the schoolmen, includes Natural Theology in See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy, not in theology properly so called . With Natorp's article W . See also:

• WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL (1823— )
• WALLACE, LEWIS [LEW] (1827—1905)
• WALLACE, SIR RICHARD
• WALLACE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1270-1305)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM (1768-1843)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM VINCENT (1814-1865)

Wallace's See also:

• GIFFORD, ROBERT SWAIN (184o—19o5)
• GIFFORD, SANDFORD ROBINSON (1823–188o)
• GIFFORD, WILLIAM (1756-1826)

Gifford Lecture,6 chap. i., may also be consulted; but Wallace does not distinguish the unusual sense which the term bears as applied to Raymond's book . R . See also:

• FLINT
• FLINT, AUSTIN (1812-1886)
• FLINT, or FLTNTSHTRE (sir Gallestr)
• FLINT, ROBERT (1838- )
• FLINT, TIMOTHY (1780-1840)

Flint has remarked that Natural Theology ought not merely to prove the being of God, but to give a full systematic view of what (it is contended) can be learned of theological truth from the " See also:

• LIGHT

light of nature " (St Augustine, and See See also:

• ART

art . " Raimundus Sabiende " by Schaarschmidt in See also:

• HERZOG, HANS (1819–1894)
• HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB (1805-1882)

Herzog-Hauck, Realencyhlopadie (ed . 1905) . At this point we must also See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call to mind the wide currency given to the term theology by See also:

• ABELARD, PETER (1079-1142)

Abelard, and his editors or copyists . 4 A .

See also:

• HARNACK, ADOLF (1851– )

Harnack and some others use the expression in a wider sense . Any supposed principles (even if not worked out into a system of inferences) used as ready-made clues for the study and interpretation of Christianity are described by this school as natural theology (cf . THEOLOGY) . 5 Challenged by Natorp; see THEOLOGY . e Published in Lectures and Essays . theologians generally after him) . The name " theism " makes that requirement less emphatic (see below) . Another kindred term is " Natural See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Religion." We meet with this in the titles of two Latin works' by See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German authors Natural in reply to See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord See also:

• HERBERT (FAMILY)
• HERBERT, GEORGE (1593-1633)
• HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM
• HERBERT, SIR THOMAS (1606-1682)

Herbert of Cherbury . They use it Religion. with strong condemnation, from the standpoint of rigorous Christian orthodoxy; but it comes into See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England within very few years upon the Christian See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side--religion against irreligion—in See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

Bishop See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• WILKINS, GEORGE (ii. 1607)
• WILKINS, JOHN (1614-1672)
• WILKINS, MARY ELEANOR (1862– )
• WILKINS, SIR CHARLES (1749?-1836)

Wilkins's Principles and Duties of Natural Religion (1678) . The author died 1672, and left the book unfinished; but the See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language of the title occurs in the first See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence; so it is undoubtedly Wilkins's, as well as sanctioned by his editor and connexion through See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage, See also:

• TILLOTSON, JOHN (1630-1694)

Tillotson, afterwards the See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

archbishop . We meet with " Natural Religion " again in See also:

• SAMUEL

Samuel See also:

• CLARKE, ADAM (1762?—1832)
• CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN (1787-1877)
• CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL (1769–1822)
• CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN (1810–1888)
• CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER (1833–1899)
• CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP (1846–1881)
• CLARKE, MARY ANNE (c.1776–1852)
• CLARKE, SAMUEL (1675–1729)
• CLARKE, SIR ANDREW (1824-1902)
• CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE (1841– )
• CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS (1866- )
• CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE (1798-1878)

Clarke's works, and notably in Bishop See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph See also:

• BUTLER
• BUTLER (or BOTELER), SAMUEL (1612–168o)
• BUTLER (through the O. Fr. bouteillier, from the Late Lat. buticularius, buticula, a bottle)
• BUTLER, ALBAN (1710-1773)
• BUTLER, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1818-1893)
• BUTLER, CHARLES (1750–1832)
• BUTLER, GEORGE (1774-1853)
• BUTLER, JOSEPH (1692-1752)
• BUTLER, NICHOLAS MURRAY (1862– )
• BUTLER, SAMUEL (1774-1839)
• BUTLER, SAMUEL (1835-1902)
• BUTLER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS (1838– )
• BUTLER, WILLIAM ARCHER (1814-1848)

Butler's See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

Analogy (1736) . Thus, as employed by most writers, " Natural Religion " connotes See also:

• NEUTRALITY

neutrality or even friendliness towards Christianity; just as is the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case with theism in sense (2), or with Natural Theology .

" Deist," or sometimes " theist " in sense (1), or Naturalist, is a term of reprobation with English 18th-century apologists, but not " Natural Religion." If there is any difference between " theism " or " Natural Theo-logy " on the one hand, and Natural Religion on the other, it is to be found in the more See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character attaching to natural " religion." While See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans i . 19 and 20 (yet cf . Acts xiv . 17, xvii . 24, &c.) is the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main New Testament passage which seems to recognize a Natural Theology, Rom. ii . 14, 15 may be said to assert Natural Religion . When the expression Natural Theology comes to the front once more with See also:

• ARCHDEACON (Lat. archidiaconus, Gr. &oxt3tauovor)

Archdeacon W . See also:

• PALEY, FREDERICK APTHORP (1815-1888)
• PALEY, WILLIAM (1743-1805)

Paley (1802), this is a sort of after-See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth or See also:

• ANACHRONISM (from ava, back, and xpovor, time)

anachronism.2 Natural See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

Law.—We do not pretend that Law of Nature—the jurist's term, not of course that of inductive See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science—is Natural strictly a synonym for theism . But it is a cognate Law. conception, of great importance historically, bearing the marks of the Stoic See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of " nature," and helping to turn men's minds towards a " natural " theology . A pantheist may believe in Law of Nature and go no further; a theist who accepts Law of Nature has a large See also:

• INSTALMENT (for earlier stallment or estallment, from Fr. estaler, to fix, arrange; the change is probably due to the influence of the verb " install ")

instalment of natural theology ready made to his hand; including an idealist, or else an intuitionalist, See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme of See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

ethics . Both See also:

• JUS

jus naturale and lex naturalis are as early as See also:

• CICERO

Cicero, and the jus gentium of the Roman lawyers is earlier still . See also:

• AMBROSE (AMBROISE), AUTPERT (d.' 778)
• AMBROSE (ANDREY SERTIS-KAMENSKIY) (1708-1771)
• AMBROSE (fl. 119o)
• AMBROSE, ISAAC (1604-1663/4)
• AMBROSE, SAINT (c. 340-307)

Ambrose of See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan (Epistles ix .

71) quotes Romans ii . 14, 15—the passage already referred to, under " Natural Religion "—as asserting " Natural Law "; St See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul's words suggest that See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of thought and may conceivably have been suggested by it . J . G . See also:

• RITCHIE, CHARLES THOMSON RITCHIE, 1ST BARON (1838-1906)
• RITCHIE, DAVID GEORGE (1853-1903)

Ritchie's Natural Rights, from the point of view of a very hostile (evolutionary) See also:

• IDEALISM (from Gr. i5Ea, archetype or model, through been urged of the truth of its point of view is the persistency Fr. idealisme)

idealism, sketches the early history of the phrase Natural Law.3 The philosopher in Abelard's Dialogus inter Judaeum Philosophunz et Christianum expects to be saved ex sola lege naturali; here " law of nature " is fully See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to Natural Religion, and the word sola sets it in contrast with Christianity . Not to speak of the canonists, Thomas Aquinas gives natural law an important place; while Melancthon, See also:

• DRAWING

drawing from Aquinas, gives it an entrance into Protestant thought . See also:

• ZWINGLI, HULDREICH (1484—1531)

Zwingli and See also:

• CALVIN, JOHN (1509-1564)

Calvin on the other hand prefer the positive view of law as instituted by God far back in history in the days of the Old See also:

• COVENANT
• COVENANT (an O. Fr. form, later convenant, from convenir, to agree, Lat. convenire)

Covenant; but, when exegesis or controversy puts pressure upon them, they fall into See also:

• LINE

line and reiterate the See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to a Natural Law . See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard See also:

• HOOKER, JOSEPH (1814–1879)
• HOOKER, RICHARD (1553-1600)
• HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH DALTON (1817— English botanist and traveller, second son of the famous botanist Sir W.J.Hooker, was born on the 3oth of June 1817, at Halesworth, Suffolk. He was educated at Glasgow University, and almost immediately after taking his M.
• HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON (1785–1865)
• HOOKER, THOMAS (1586–1647)

Hooker, again with traces of Aquinas, uses the conception as a weapon against See also:

• PURITANISM (Lat. puritas, purity)

Puritanism, with its aggressive See also:

• POSITIVISM (derived from ponere, whence positus, that which is laid down, certain)

positivism of scriptural See also:

• PRECEPT (Lat. praeceptum, a rule, from praecipere, literally to take beforehand, to give rules, instructions or orders)

precept . Natural Law, he claims, leaves See also:

• ROOM

room for discretionary arrangements like See also:

• EPISCOPACY (from Late Lat. episcopatus, the office of a bishop, episcopas)

episcopacy; Scripture does not mean to supersede the light of reason . It is intelligible that Locke (See also:

• TREATISES

Treatises of Civil See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

Government) should have a relish in quoting Hooker against the divine-right royalism of See also:

• SIR

Sir John See also:

• FILMER, SIR ROBERT (d. 1653)

Filmer; but in Locke there is already ' Recorded in J . G . See also:

• WALCH, JOHANN GEORG (1693-1775)

Walch's Bibliotheca Theologica Selecta (1751) .

2 See Wallace's Gifford Lecture . 3 For the influence of that conception in theology, especially through the See also:

• MEDIUM

medium of Isidore of See also:

• SEVILLE
• SEVILLE (Span. Sevilla, Lat. Ispalis or Hispalis, Moorish Ishbiliya)

Seville, see successive chapters in A . J . See also:

• CARLYLE, ALEXANDER (1722-1805)
• CARLYLE, JOSEPH DACRE (1759-18o4)
• CARLYLE, THOMAS (1795-1881)

Carlyle's Inst. of Mediaeval Political Thought in the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West, vol i.a revival of belief in the (beau-ideal) " See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state " of nature and a growing emphasis upon natural rights; ideas which, heralded by See also:

• ROUSSEAU, JACQUES (1633-1693)
• ROUSSEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1671-1741)
• ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778)
• ROUSSEAU, PIERRE ETIENNE THEODORE (1812–1867); French painter of the Barbizon school, was born in Paris on the 15th of April 1812, of a bourgeois family which included one or two artists. At first he received a business training, but soon displayed aptitu

Rousseau, echoed See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the world in the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French Revolution . Locke had spent some years in See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland, the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country of Grotius, who, with help from other great lawyers, and under a misapprehension as to the meaning of the Roman jus gentium, shaped modern concepts of See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international law by an appeal to law of nature.' This moral ideal rendered considerable services to See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization; we must not forget these, in the offence which the myth of a See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• GOLDEN

golden See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age may offer to our historic sense . The See also:

• KERNEL (O.E. cyrnel, a diminutive of " corn," seed, grain)

kernel is See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound enough though the husk is a poor thing . Finally, it is of some See also:

• INTEREST

interest to See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note that Chr . Wolff, in the intervals of his chequered theological career, lectured and wrote as a jurist upon the Law of Nature . " Philosophy of religion " is the modern term . It again is not exactly a synonym, though more nearly so than the last . The new phrase indicates that we are to approach philosothe thought of God through a study of religious beliefs phy of and practices; " theism " tended to make God a religion. purely scientific inference from the facts of nature . But " philosophy of religion " can be construed in many different ways .

An investigator, pledging himself to no beliefs—even perhaps one who definitely disbelieves and rejects theism—may yet interest himself in tracking out the See also:

• PSYCHOLOGY
• PSYCHOLOGY (>Guxrl, the mind or soul, and X yos, theory)

psychology of religion . Or a philosopher like See also:

• HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1770-1831)

Hegel, armed with a metaphysical theory, may descend upon the facts of religion and interpret them in its light, till they almost lose their See also:

• ORIGINAL

original significance, which we might provisionally define as consisting in this, that the believer in any religion finds himself helped or (as he claims) saved by it . Again, we must not be misled by verbal idiosyncrasies . What See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James See also:

• MARTINEAU, HARRIET (1802-1876)
• MARTINEAU, JAMES (1805-1900)

Martineau calls A Study of Religion is really in the main a re-statement of old theistic arguments.5 [Wallace's Gifford Lecture may be consulted upon this phrase also . He observes with truth that Natural Theology, if you remove from it the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of subordination to Christianity as (claiming to be) a See also:

• SPECIAL

special revelation, tends to pass into a philosophy of religion . But it does not follow that the new standpoint involves what .Wallace seems to hint, though he conceals his meaning behind complimentary See also:

• RHETORIC (Gr. psroperctj TEXvq, the art of the orator)

rhetoric—rejection of church Christianity . A . M . See also:

• FAIRBAIRN, ANDREW MARTIN (1838- )
• FAIRBAIRN, SIR WILLIAM

Fairbairn's Phil. of the Christian Religion shows by its very title that an effort is being made to combine great confidence in metaphysics with strong belief in the uniqueness of Christianity; and the effort will be found to characterize all Fairbairn's See also:

• WORK

work . Possibly, See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller study of religions may help theologians to formulate the imperial claims of Christianity more happily than in the dry contrast between what is " revealed " and what is " natural." But that contrast is traditional; and it is implied in the ordinary theological usage of such phrases as " natural theology " or " natural religion " and almost of " theism."] See also:

• COMPARATIVE

Comparative religion, or, as some call it, history of religion, is yet another modern study, closely akin to the last discussed, although more strictly confined to registering the Comparasequence of religious phenomena and less disposed tine Re- towards criticizing religions or towards ranking them liglm in an See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of merit . We cannot, therefore, call it precisely synonymous with theism . And yet theism—or monotheism—constitutes a special See also:

• LOCUS (Lat. for " place "; in Gr. rinros)

locus in the history of religion .

The historian observes and records, in different lands and ages, the rise or explicit utterance of belief in one God . Some uncertainty may be See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt whether See also:

• PANTHEISM (Gr. 7rav, all, Oeos, god)

pantheism should See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank as a theism . Is unity the main point ? Or is not See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality rather of See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime importance, though doubtless pre-supposing unity ? (Usage does not allow us to rank polytheism as a form of theism.) E . Troeltsch, Kultur der Gegenwart, Tell I . See also:

• ABT, FRANZ (1819-1885)

Abt . 4, p . 470, finds that the See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom of the priests, in one See also:

• LAND

land after another, rises to the thought of divine unity . That suggests pantheism, the usual form of such See also:

• ESOTERIC

esoteric wisdom . See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor T . W .

Rhys Davids (See also:

• AMERICAN

American Lectures, p . 37) sums up that, when the name of an earlier deity is 4 See (with writers already mentioned) Sir H . See also:

• MAINE
• MAINE, ANNE LOUISE BENEDICTE DE BOURBON
• MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822–1888)

Maine's See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

Ancient Law . 5 See his Introduction . attached to the See also:

• OBJECT

object of supreme worship, monotheism proper is approached; while, when a new thought-construction is put in the supreme place, there is a tendency rather towards See also:

• PAN (" pasturer ")
• PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open)

pan-theism . So far as this is true, theism (proper) would seem to be an See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident of language . There is a further problem; whether monotheism is of very early occurrence . Belief in a primitive See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical revelation, once universal among Christians, has almost disappeared; but belief in a very early and highly moral theism is stoutly defended, chiefly on Australian See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence, by See also:

• ANDREW (Gr. 'AvBp4as, manly)
• ANDREW, JOHN ALBION (1818-1867)

Andrew See also:

• LANG, ANDREW (1844— )
• LANG, KARL HEINRICH, RITTER VON (1764-1835)

Lang (The Making of Religion and later works) . If Lang is right, " primitive " peoples See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew typical theistic inferences, and argued to God from nature and from See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

conscience, though without displacing other types of religious belief and practice . In many regions--See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, Babylonia, &c.—individual investigators of the great religions have thought they found traces of an early—one hesitates to write, of a " primitive "—monotheism . Perhaps J . See also:

• LEGGE
• LEGGE, JAMES (1815-1897)

Legge, who finds true theism at the See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn of See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese history, is the most authoritative representative of such views .

Passing to later times, we can See also:

• WATCH (in O. Eng. wcecce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake)

watch a theory of monotheism rising, and dying down again, during what our scholars distin-See also:

• BRAHMAN

Brahman guish as the Brahmanical See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of See also:

• INDIAN

Indian religion. theism . The supreme god, Isvara, has the See also:

• PERSONAL

personal name Prajapati, Visvakarman or some other . But this theism is lifeless—a " See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale and shallow deism, which See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India has often confessed with the lips, but which has never won the See also:

• HOMAGE (from homo, through the Low Lat. hominaticum, which occurs in a document of 1035)

homage of her See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart.''' The thought of India is upon the side of pan-theism . Again, the heretical See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king Amenophis IV . Egyptian or Akhenaton, one of the sovereigns to whose govern- ment the celebrated Tell el-Amarna letters from See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine were addressed, was a zealous See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion of the exclusive claims of the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun-disk God, Ra; but his policy died with him . In Babylonia a mutilated inscription printed by See also:

• BABYLON (mod. Hillah)

Babylon- T . Pinches (Transactions of See also:

• VICTORIA
• VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO DA (C. I540-C. 1613)
• VICTORIA [ALEXANDRINA VICTORIA]

Victoria See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

Institute, vol . 28), ian. identifying (so far as preserved) thirteen other Gods with See also:

• MARDUK (Bib'. MERODACH2)

Marduk, has been hailed by See also:

• FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836— )

Friedrich See also:

• DELITZSCH
• DELITZSCH, FRANZ (1813–1890)

Delitzsch (See also:

• BABEL

Babel and Babel) as the great See also:

• FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. fontana, from ions, a spring)

fountain-See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of monotheism, and has influenced the bold if highly See also:

• PRECARIOUS

precarious conjectures of H . Winckler.2 Of more assured importance was the Zoroastrian faith—" pure Zoroas- moral See also:

• DUALISM (from rare Lat. dualis, containing two, from duo)

dualism if not theism " (L . H . See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

Mills)—which Irian. proved its zeal by persecutions . But later times nearly strangled Zoroastrian piety, not only by See also:

• LAWS

laws of See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual purity but also by newly evolved secondary deities—personified attributes, and the like .

So that here again theism, if theism it was, did not continue in strength . If we understand by theism not See also:

• SIMPLE

simple belief in a divine unity, but such faith in one divine See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person as will constitute the basis for a popular religion, then—unless we allow a doubtful exception in Zoroastrianism—we must agree with those historians of religion who affirm that the world has known only a single living monotheism, viz. that of the Old Testament, along with what are historically the daughter faiths, Christianity and See also:

• ISLAM

Islam . The theist believes that he can further trace many incomplete workings of the monothesitic See also:

• INSTINCT

instinct in the history of religion . /ncom- Not only is it true, as A . Menzies observes, that plete " Reason knows only God, not Gods "; if we take theistic religion as saving help, no worshipper possesses re-impulses. ligion in full See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security until he has gone straight to the fountain-head, and gained the friendship of the God of Gods . Indian Vedic henotheism (otherwise called kathenotheism);3 Semitic monolatry, so important as the probable starting-point of religious development in See also:

• ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel; the Greek use of " See also:

• ZEUS

Zeus " almost as we say " God "—even the See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to arrange deities in a monarchical See also:

• PANTHEON (Lat. pantheum or pantheon; Gr. srav& ov, all-holy, from re, s, all, and Oeor god)

pantheon, all show the tendency, though it so seldom attains a real victory . r A . See also:

• BARTH
• BARTH, HEINRICH (1821–1865)
• BARTH, KASPAR VON (1587-1658)

Barth, Religions of India, Eng. trans., pp . 29, 30, 69 . We may probably extend this hostile See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment to the theism of the modern Samaj-es . 2 The centralizing of worship at Babylon by its last king, Nabonidos, hardly seems to have amounted to monotheism . t The two terms are explicitly identified by F .

Max See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller, their inventor (e.g . Hibbert Lectures, chap. vi. p . 271) . II . We have already suggested that theism covers more ground than the name at first may suggest . It can never quite confine See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to the problem of the being of God . Where suborai-God is believed in at all, it is believed that upon God Hate everything else depends . With the thought of God, mesas of accordingly, there is correlated a modification in theism. thoughts upon all other subjects; and a full system of theism must discourse " Of God, of the world, of the Soul, " like See also:

• MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST
• MATTHEW, ST (MaOOaior or MarOaIos, probably a shortened form of the Hebrew equivalent to Theodorus)
• MATTHEW, TOBIAS

Matthew See also:

• ARNOLD
• ARNOLD, BENEDICT (1741-1801)
• ARNOLD, GOTTFRIED (1666-1714)
• ARNOLD, MATTHEW (1822-1888)
• ARNOLD, SAMUEL (1740--18o2)
• ARNOLD, SIR EDWIN (1832-1904)
• ARNOLD, THOMAS (1745-1842)

Arnold's See also:

• MOSES (Gr. Mwvo c, Mcoo-i3s)
• MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF

Moses . In other words there must be doctrines regarding See also:

• MATTER

matter and mind, the world and the self, as well as regarding that See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

Absolute Being who is believed to exist behind both, revealing Himself through them . This way of approaching theism is illustrated in A . C . See also:

• FRASER
• FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1819– )
• FRASER, JAMES (1818-1885)
• FRASER, JAMES BAILLIE (1783--1856)
• FRASER, SIR WILLIAM AUGUSTUS

Fraser's Gifford Lectures, or in earlier times in the writings of Christian Wolff, whose sciences, according to the slightly different nomenclature which Kant imposed on them, were " rational psychology," " rational cosmology," and " rational theology." Kant swept away, so far as his influence extended, such " dogmatic metaphysics " and the old-fashioned theism which it constituted or included; but Kant himself introduced, in his own more sceptical yet also more moral type of theistic doctrine, a new trichotomy—God, Freedom, See also:

• IMMORTALITY (Lat. in-, not, mortalis, mortal, from mors, death)

Immortality, the three " postulates " of the Kant's " practical reason." It is tempting to try to correlate "posh:- the members of this triad with the individual members fates." of the older triad .

But that would only mislead us; See also:

• FREE

free will and immortality are really predicates ascribed—on whatever grounds—to the soul; and it is natural that in theism the soul of man should be a topic second in importance only to God Himself . Every theistic system, or almost every one, makes See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision in some way for Kant's three postulates . Accordingly, even in a hurried survey of the history of theism, we must try to question the systems we are reviewing upon their attitude towards human freedom and immortality, as well as upon their doctrine of God . Sometimes it will be found that free will is asserted as an assured fact, as a datum, Free and so as a ground of inference to God . But some- will . times free will is rather a probandum . In Christian theology, much labour has been spent upon vindicating man's freedom against God's intrusion, or upon blotting out human power in order to leave room for the divine . Theism si'ggests at the very outset that we should rather expect to find a. correlation between the two . If there is a God at all, he must be thought of as the See also:

• GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt " guarantie " or " guaranty "; an O. Fr. form of " warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as wahren, to defend or make safe and binding)

guarantee of freedom in man and as the See also:

• PLEDGE

pledge of his immortality . The mention of Christian theology may remind us that, for the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of theists in See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval and modern times, theism proper has ranked only as a secondary wisdom . It simpiinis possible for Christians to work out natural theology cation of in See also:

• SEPARATE

separate detail; but we cannot wonder if they theism. rarely attempt the task, believing as they do that they have a fuller revelation of religious truth elsewhere . In point of fact, as we look to history, we find that theism has been much simplified and cut down .

First of all, attention has been concentrated upon God . One does not suggest that this concentration was an See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error., On the contrary, even Christian theology makes at least theeffort to show that the thought of God regulates the whole system of belief . Yet while an adequate doctrine of God may See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle everything in principle, we ought to remember that there are applications of the principle, apart from which we do not see our way clearly . As a second step in concentration, attention is almost confined to the question " Does God exist ? " and to theistic proofs as answering " Yes." The 'further question " What is God?" is slurred, as if there could be no two opinions regarding that; whereas in truth there are two See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred opinions . A . B . See also:

• BRUCE
• BRUCE, ALEXANDER BALMAIN (1831-1899)
• BRUCE, JAMES (1930-1794)
• BRUCE, MICHAEL (1746-1767)

Bruce feels this so strongly that the natural theology See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of his Apologetics entirely omits the question " Does God exist?" in favour of the question " What is God?" Perhaps that is equally one-sided . When we do find theism dealing with the question " What is God?" it tends to See also:

• BORROW, GEORGE HENRY (18o3-1881)

borrow from scholastic 'dorms of Christian theology the scheme of Being and Attributes (see e.g . Wolff) . But such a scheme gives at best an See also:

• EXTERNAL

external preliminary description of the object to which it is applied.' So our See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of material narrows down in the ordinary handling to a single question . God, the world, the soul, free will, immortality, optimism; What then is God ?

All these questions, and perhaps others, tend to conceal themselves behind a single discussion: Does God exist ? But further still . Either the fuller or the narrower way of dealing with theism will differ according to the philosophical stand- Differ- point of the particular theist who speaks to-the ques- ence of phllo- tion . As See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long as the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of the philosophies sophkal endures, theism can hardly be unified . Its history is stand- not so much that of a single evolving doctrine, but pomG rather the history of many and diverse theistic schemes . The simplest basis for philosophy2 is See also:

• EMPIRICISM (from Gr. Eµrretpor, skilled in, from sreipa, experiment)

empiricism . Such a philosophy makes little serious attempt at constructive work in Empirl- antiquity; but, upon the first great victories of cism. physical science in modern times, a See also:

• DESIRE

desire arose to extend the new and wonderfully fruitful method to the ultimate problems of See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation . Let us take experience as our teacher ! Let us stand upon realities—upon facts ! Difficulty may be found in carrying out this empiricist See also:

• PROGRAMME, or PROGRAM

programme; but at the outset no one dreams of failure . Beginning with the certainties of everyday experience, it reaches theism at last by means of an analogical See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument . Many See also:

• OBJECTS

objects in nature, organisms especially, seem to resemble the works of human See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design; there-Argument fore with high See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability we infer a designing mind from behind nature, adequate to the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of these design. special results .3 Having got such a mind, we may next inquire whether, on the principle of See also:

• PARSIMONY, LAW OF (Lat. parsimonia, from parcere, to save)

parsimony, it will not See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account for more; perhaps for everything in nature !

But the starting-point of the argument in question is the purely empirical evidence of a single fact or set of facts; it proceeds by way of analogy, not of strict demonstration; and it claims for its results nothing more than probability . From See also:

• SOCRATES

Socrates, in See also:

• XENOPHON

Xenophon's Memorabilia, downwards, the argument is tolerably common; it is notable in Cicero; in the modern discussion it dominates the 18th-century mode of thought, is confidently appealed to though not worked out by Butler, and is fully stated by Paley . The argument does not necessarily imply empiricism in philosophy; still, it is peculiarly characteristic of empiricism . In ethics empiricism begins by recognizing that man possesses sensations, and so is liable to pleasures and pains . Hence, early empiricism makes ethics simply a calculus Ethks; of pleasures (" See also:

• HEDONISM (Gr. i bovit, pleasure, from ?) (s, sweet, pleasant)

hedonism ") . We may doubt, with See also:

• HEDON

Hedon- W . E . H . See also:

• LECKY, WILLIAM EDWARD HARTPOLE (1838–1903)

Lecky,4 whether such a philosophy affords ism. a basis for natural theology at all; but the attempt is made . As J . S . See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

Mill tried to reconcile criminal law and its punishments with his very hard type of See also:

• DETERMINISM (Lat. determinare, to prescribe or limit)

determinism by saying that law was needed in order to See also:

• WEIGHT

weight the See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale, and in order to hold out a prospect of penalties which might deter from See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime and impel towards See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good citizenship, so Paley held that virtue was not merely obedience to God but obedience " for 'Criticism of the scheme, from the point of view of an idealist theism, will be found in John See also:

• CAIRD, EDWARD (1835-1908)
• CAIRD, JOHN (182o–1898)

Caird's Introduc to the Phil. of Religion, chap. viii .

Yet the See also:

• FORMULA
• FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c., especially used of rules of judicial procedure)

formula is serviceable . Perhaps it is even indispensable as a preliminary statement . We find it substantially revived in the opening sentence and general scheme of a useful See also:

• HOOK, JAMES CLARKE (1819-1907)
• HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD (1788-1841)
• HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR (1798-1875)

hook, A . See also:

• CALDECOTT, RANDOLPH (1846-1886)

Caldecott's study of The Phil. of Relzg. in England and See also:

• AMERICA

America . 2 An outline of the history of theism is reserved for Section IV.; but it has not proved possible to See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch the types of philosophy without introducing references to the history of philosophy and sometimes even to the history of theism as well . Ot course the Design Argument is well known in antiquity, but not the type of philosophy which stands or falls by that line of " See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof.' 4 4 Cf . Hist. of See also:

• EUROPEAN

European Morals, pp . 58, 59.the See also:

• SAKE

sake of eternal happiness." A second type of hedonism—less ignoble, but perhaps also less logical—calls men to seek the happiness of others . Paley includes that too.; virtue is " doing good to mankind," in obedience to God, for the sake of See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven . The second type of philosophy, for our purpose, is intuitionalism . It finds its See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance in the misadventures of empiricism . The Scottish philosophy of Thomas See also:

• REID, ROBERT (1862– )
• REID, SIR GEORGE (1841- )
• REID, SIR ROBERT GILLESPIE (184o-19o8)
• REID, SIR WILLIAM (1791-1858)
• REID, THOMAS (1710-1796)
• REID, THOMAS MAYNE (1818-1883)
• REID, WHITELAW (1837- )

Reid and his See also:

• INTUITION (from Lat. intueri, to look at)

Intuition-successors believed that See also:

• DAVID
• DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably beloved 1)
• DAVID, FELICIEN (1810—1876)
• DAVID, GERARD [GHEERAERT DAVIT], (?=1523)
• DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789–1856)
• DAVID, ST (Dewi, Sant)

David See also:

• HUME, ALEXANDER (c. 1557-1609)
• HUME, DAVID (1711-1776)
• HUME, JOSEPH (1777-1855)

Hume's See also:

• SCEPTICISM (o-Kesrroµai, I consider, reflect, hesitate, doubt)

scepticism was alism• no more than the genuine outcome of Locke's sensationalist appeal to experience when ripened or forced on by the immaterialism of Bishop See also:

• BERKELEY
• BERKELEY, GEORGE (1685–1753)
• BERKELEY, MILES JOSEPH (1803-1889)
• BERKELEY, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1608-1677)

Berkeley—God and the soul alone; not God, world and soul .

And so the Scotsmen See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell back upon the See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness of consciousness . They did not make much use of the word " intuition," which may indeed be taken in different senses, e.g. of visionary experiences as well as of the principles of " common sense " (i.e. universal beliefs) . They spoke of " natural See also:

• REALISM (from Low Lat. realis, appertaining to res, things, as opposed to ideas and imaginations)

realism " and a " natural dualism " of mind and matter (reinstating here the element which Berkeley had struck out) . Still, they do not repudiate the word " intuition," and lt.indred writers make it prominent . The term is borrowed from Sight, of all the physical senses the one which most rapidly instructs the mind . You see, at a glance, that things are so . Indeed, there is a further implication, when the term intuition is borrowed for See also:

• MENTAL

mental See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision; you see at a glance that things must be so . Here then characteristically intuitionalism occupies a See also:

• HALF

half-way See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house between empiricism, with its appeal to real given fact, and idealism, with its appeal to See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity . The senses, in See also:

• PERCEPTION (from Lat. percipere, to perceive)

perception as contrasted with sensation, are held to give immediate knowledge . We perceive, beyond all possibility of doubt, that things are so and so . This is Reid's first reply to Hume . Define more carefully than Locke did, with his blunder about "ideas," the See also:

• PROCESS

process of perception, and you cut up scepticism by the roots !

So far, this philosophy has little bearing upon theism . But Intuitionalism has further arguments for the doubter . Besides testimony from See also:

• OUTER

outer sense, we have testimony and teachings from consciousness within—" first principles," as Reid generally calls them . There are some principles which, as soon as they are presented to the mind and correctly grasped, must be assented to; we see the truth ! Two regions become prominent in the working out of intuitionalism, if still more prominent in the widely differing philosophy of Kant—the regions of See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics and of morals . Though J . S . Mill boldly affirmed that there might be remote realms in space where 2+2 did not make 4 but some different See also:

• TOTAL

total, even empiricists may hestitate to concur; and yet Mill's assertion is at least the most obvious empiricist See also:

• READING

reading of the situation . If all knowledge is See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from experience, statements universal in form are but generalizations, holding within the limits of actual experience, or advanced beyond them at our peril . See also:

• GEOMETRY

Geometry again is regarded by thoroughgoing empiricists as hypothetical . It deals, according to Mill, with arbitrary and imaginary constructions . If there were such a thing as a triangle contained by absolutely straight lines, its three angles would no doubt measure what See also:

• EUCLID
• EUCLID [EucLEIDES]

Euclid says; but straight lines and true triangles nowhere exist in rerum natura .

Kant's point is ignored, that deductions from these" imaginary figures apply to the " real " world of experience . Every time we survey a See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field, we go upon the principles, not of special experience, but of a priori necessity . Given certain linear and angular measurements, the See also:

• AREA

area must be so and so . Great as is the difference when we pass from mathematics to morality, yet there are striking similarities, and here again intuitionalism claims to find much support . If we accept moral ideals at all, we are no longer in the world of mere phenomenal sequences, but in a new world . It is a problem for empiricism; given a world where nothing but phenomenal sequences exist, to account for moral ideals . Vulgar See also:

• MATERIALISM (from Lat. materia, matter)

materialism sneers at the problem; See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty is a See also:

• FRAUD (Lat. fraus, deceit)

fraud or hobgoblin, a mere superstition . Even See also:

• JEREMY, EPISTLE OF

Jeremy See also:

• BENTHAM, GEORGE (1800-1884)
• BENTHAM, JEREMY (1748-1832)

Bentham, restive under appeals to vague and in-tangible See also:

• STANDARDS

standards, breaks out in despairing indignation against the word " ought " as " the See also:

• TALISMAN

talisman of arrogance, indolence and See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance," and as " an authoritative imposture."' Later ethical empiricism is more refined . J . S . Mill recognizes an ultimate difference in quality between higher and See also:

• LOWER

lower pleasures . A .

See also:

• BAIN, ALEXANDER (1818-1903)
• BAIN, ANDREW GEDDES (1797-1864)

Bain finds that benevolence is one given element in man's original constitution . H . See also:

• SIDGWICK, HENRY (1838-1900)

Sidgwick holds that intuition must justify the claims of the general happiness upon the individual, though everything subsequent is hedonistic calculus . Herbert See also:

• SPENCER
• SPENCER, HERBERT (1820-1903)
• SPENCER, JOHN CHARLES SPENCER, 3RD EARL (1782-1845)
• SPENCER, JOHNPOYNTZ SPENCER
• SPENCER, WILLIAM ROBERT (1769-1834)

Spencer finds that the modern individual has intuitions of duty which represent the inherited experience of what has been good for the See also:

• RACE

race in the past . Sir See also:

• LESLIE
• LESLIE, CHARLES (1650-1722)
• LESLIE, CHARLES ROBERT (1794–1859)
• LESLIE, FRED [FREDERICK HOBSON] (1855–1892)
• LESLIE, SIR JOHN (1766-1832)
• LESLIE, THOMAS EDWARD CLIFFE (1827-1882)

Leslie See also:

• STEPHEN
• STEPHEN (1097?-1154)
• STEPHEN (ISTVAN) BATHORY (1533-1586)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES (1789-1859)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES FITZJAMES, BART
• STEPHEN, SIR LESLIE (1832-1904)

Stephen finds that moral laws are the conditions needful for the good of the social organism, and are imposed as such by society upon its individual members . The problem has altered its form . What the modern empiricist needs is a rational See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

bond uniting the individual with the community or with the aggregate of individuals—a rational principle distinguishing high pleasures from See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low, sanctioning benevolence, and giving authority to moral generalizations drawn from conditions that are past and done with . The non-empirical moralist will not of course admit that duty to the community or to mankind is a final See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of the ethical ideal . He will accept it as a See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage, of no small importance, in progressive definition; but he will seek to go further . We have already remarked that the difficulties of empiricism constitute the strength of intuitionalism . A critic of intuition-Criticism alism might add that they are its whole strength; oiintui- intuitionalism is sound upon the intellectual and tionalism• moral interests of humanity, but it does little to justify them . It reasserts them, with resolute See also:

• LOYALTY

loyalty; but if philosophy ought to vindicate, to explain, perhaps incidentally to modify, even, it may be, to purify our See also:

• PRIMARY

primary beliefs, intuitionalism is hardly a philosophy at all .

For good or for evil, so far as there is an accepted line of theistic doctrine, that doctrine is intuitionalist . Other See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of philosophy pay flying visits to theism; intuitionalism is at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home there . Its leading argument is the cosmological, concluding to " God as cause " (Martineau) . When David Hume (Dialogues concerning Natural Religion) protests that the universe is a " singular effect " and that we have no right to affirm a cause for it, unless we have experience of the origin of many universes, and can generalize the conclusion, They all have causes—he may be unassailable upon empiricist grounds . But intuitionalism claims to allege a higher certainty; everything (or every See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change) must have a cause—this is not merely actual fact but necessary truth . The universe exists—or, as otherwise stated, the universe is " contingent "—therefore, even without detailed know-ledge of different universes, we can affirm that it must be caused, and in its " Great First Cause " we recognize God .= It is generally stated that this argument was for the first time definitely formulated in Aristotle's philosophy . Of course the cosmological argument is rarely or never left to stand quite alone . The design argument is available for the slightly bolder philosophy of intuitionalism as well as for empiricist theism . But there is yet another argument which is even more important . Moral elements must enter into theism at some point: and, as against empiricism, intuitionalism is morally strong . Hence it naturally has a moral argument in reserve . Moral law implies a law-giver; " we are conscious of moral dependence " (See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert Flint) .

Still the main weight of intuitionalist theism rests upon the conception of God as First Cause . As a philosophy, intuitionalism leaves the mind in all the embarrassment of an indefinite number of separate starting-points . Every percept is such a starting-point; it is an immediate certainty, remaining with us unmodified as the basis Deontology, p . 42 . F . H . See also:

• BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE (1821–1903)
• BRADLEY, JAMES (1693–1762)

Bradley (Ethical Studies, p . 2) quotes an even plainer attack on the conceptions as well as the terminology of ethics in a See also:

• WESTMINSTER
• WESTMINSTER, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• WESTMINSTER, STATUTES OF
• WESTMINSTER, SYNODS OF

Westminster See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review article (Oct . 1893, p . 311) which describes" responsibility " or (sic) " moral See also:

• DESERT

desert in the vulgar sense" as " horrid figments of the See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination." 2 Any attempt to treat " cause " as pointing to a truth here, but inadequately, would See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead its beyond intuitionalism into some phase of idealism . To revise one's first principles is to be an intuitionalist no longer.of reliable inference . Every First Principle of the mind is a starting-point too .

Reid—certainly a very unsystematic thinker—furnishes long and See also:

• RANDOM (older forms randon, randrun; from the French, cf. randir, to run quickly, impetuously; generally taken to be of Teutonic origin and connected with Ger. Rand, edge, brim, the idea being possibly of a brimming river)

random lists of " first principles "; a later writer, J . I\I'Cosh, in his Intuitions of the Mind, attempts a more systematic study . (For ethics we may also compare See also:

• MISS

Miss F . P . Cobbe . Contemporary with Reid and even more popular in treatment was James See also:

• BEATTIE, JAMES (1735—1803)

Beattie; Dugald See also:

• STEWART, ALEXANDER TURNEY (1803-1876)
• STEWART, BALFOUR (1828-1887)
• STEWART, CHARLES (1778–1869)
• STEWART, DUGALD (1753-1828)
• STEWART, J
• STEWART, JOHN (1749—1822)
• STEWART, JULIUS L
• STEWART, SIR DONALD MARTIN (1824–19o0)
• STEWART, SIR HERBERT (1843—1885)
• STEWART, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1540—c. 1605)
• STEWART, STUART
• STEWART, WILLIAM (c. 1480-c. 1550)

Stewart with trivial modifications followed Reid; but in Sir W . See also:

• HAMILTON
• HAMILTON (GRAND or ASHUANIPI)
• HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (1757-1804)
• HAMILTON, ANTHONY, or ANTOINE (1646-1720)
• HAMILTON, ELIZABETH (1758–1816)
• HAMILTON, EMMA, LADY (c. 1765-1815)
• HAMILTON, JAMES (1769-1831)
• HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON, 1ST DUKE OF (1606-1649)
• HAMILTON, JOHN (c. 1511–1571)
• HAMILTON, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• HAMILTON, PATRICK (1504-1528)
• HAMILTON, ROBERT (1743-1829)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN (1805-1865)
• HAMILTON, THOMAS (1789-1842)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM (1704-1754)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD (1729-1796)

Hamilton and H . L . See also:

• MANSEL, HENRY LONGUEVILLE (1820-1871)

Mansel there were sweeping changes in the direction of See also:

• AGNOSTICISM

agnosticism—changes due partly or primarily to the influence of Kant.) Memory is included among First Principles . Testimony is also a First Principle (this is aimed against Hume's See also:

• ESSAY, ESSAYIST (Fr. essai, Late Lat. exagium, a weighing or balance; exigere, to examine; the term in general meaning any trial or effort)

Essay on Miracles) . Inevitably the question forces itself upon the mind, is not some fuller See also:

• SYNTHESIS (Gr. a6vOeacs, from avvrcBivac, to put together)

synthesis possible ? All these isolated starting-points of thought are said to be, one by one, necessary .

Is there no higher or broader necessity ? Can we not attain to some farther-reaching philosophy ? If we See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer " Yes " to that question, we pass on from intuitionalism to idealism—an idealism not on the lines of Berkeley (matter does not exist) but of See also:

• PLATO

Plato (things obey an ascertainable rational necessity) . This third possibility in philosophy does not enter at all into Lecky's grouping referred to above; in fact, it is very generally See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange to older See also:

• BRITISH

British thinking,3 which, if it conceives any tertium quid besides empiricism and intuitionalism, is apt to think of scepticism . The fixed given points of intuitionalism furnish Hamilton with one of his arguments in his unexpected development towards a sceptical or " faith philosophy." You cannot prove any first principle . You accept it by " faith." So—for this among other reasons —we infer that knowledge has narrow limits, beyond which doubt, or faith, presently begins . But is it really a matter of faith that two and two make four ? Do we " believe where we cannot prove " that the whole is greater than its part ? A less sophisticated intuitionalism would rejoin with great force, " These are matters of sight; it could not be otherwise, and you see that it could not!" Hamilton's line of thought may, however, impress on us the conviction that it is extremely natural for philosophy to pass beyond the limitations of a purely intuitionalist programme . It does so notably in Kant . He is a most difficult writer; different readers under- Kant as stand him differently; and he uses in the earlier parts a transiof his Critique of Pure Reason much of the language tonal of intuitionalism . But nothing is more certain than idealist. that his thought is a strong solvent of the intuitionalist way of thinking; and he has had an immense influence in many directions .

We may state his See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief results in our own words . First he breaks up the percept . It is no ultimate given point of departure; it is due to the reaction of thought upon sensation . Sense alone will never create orderly experience, as empiricism supposed; but a See also:

• GROUP

group of sensations reacted on by thought does so; it becomes, it is, a percept . Secondly: the " forms " of time and space, not referable to any sensation, and pre-supposed in every experience, come from the mind (" Transcendental Aesthetic ") . Thirdly: we cannot explain how these three elements—sensation; time and space; thought—work together . True, Kant refers often to the ideal of a " perceptive " or " intuitive understanding," whose thought would produce the whole of knowledge out of its native contents . But our understanding, he is convinced, is of a different and inferior type . Incomprehensibly, we are dependent upon sensation; and incomprehensibly, we place our sensations in time and space . Fourthly: if we try to think of objects not built up out of sensations and not in time and space, we are 2 See also:

• AUSTIN
• AUSTIN, ALFRED
• AUSTIN, JOHN (179o-1859)
• AUSTIN, SARAH (1793-1867)
• AUSTIN, STEPHEN FULLER (1793-1836)

Austin's See also:

• JURISPRUDENCE (Lat. jurisprudenlia, knowledge of law, from jus, right, and prudentia, from providere, to foresee)
• JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE

Jurisprudence explicitly assumes that the See also:

• DILEMMA (Gr. &Xuµua, a double proposition, from bi- and aµ(36.vetv)

dilemma of " intuitive " and " utilitarian " is exhaustive . Hence F . H .

Bradley's characteristic protest (Ethical Studies, pp . 82, 83) : " If we wished to See also:

• CROSS

cross an unknown See also:

• BOG (from Ir. and Gael. bogach, bog, soft)

bog, and two men came to us of whom the one said ' Some one must know the way over this bog, for there must be a way, and you see there is no one here beside us two, and therefore one of us two must be able to See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide you . And the other man does not know the way, as you can soon see: there-fore I must '—should we answer, ' Lead on, I follow'?" A transition to idealism or scepticism . baffled by contradictions or absurdities . Kant admits that we necessarily aspire to think of such objects—" God, the World, the Soul "—possibly this alleged tendency of our thought is already implied in the See also:

• DREAM (from a root dreug, connected with Germ. trugen, to deceive)

dream of a " perceptive understanding." But speculative knowledge breaks down or breaks off at an earlier point . If we try to know the soul, we grasp at a phantom . The self is always subject in consciousness and never can be-come an object of knowledge (" Paralogism of Pure Reason ") . If we try to know the real world, we find ourselves distracted by opposite arguments (" Antithetic of Pure Reason "), plausible and resistless in attack, helpless in See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence . The only thing which the " Ideas " of " Reason " can do for theoretic know-ledge is to exert a " regulative " See also:

• FUNCTION

function . They See also:

• TEACH [THATCH OR THACH], EDWARD (d. 1718)

teach the inferior but working part of our See also:

• INTELLECT (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand)

intellect, the " Understanding," that its picture of sensuous reality envisaged in time and space must be as fully articulated as is possible—as much differentiated into detail, and as perfectly integrated again into unity and system . God, for Pure Reason, is an illegitimate personification of the idea of perfected experience (" Ideal of Pure Reason ") . Fifthly. there are fixed limits to the possibility of improving the quality of experience .

Sense-knowledge is an endless process, inconsistent with the requirements of thought . We can by no means regard the physical world as the real world . But we possess knowledge of the physical world and of it alone . " Things in themselves "—whether defined by Kant, illogically enough, as causes of sensations, or again defined by him as the ultimate realities towards which thought vaguely points—in either case, " things in themselves " are unattainable by any definite knowledge . Our " reach " exceeds our " grasp " with a vengeance . So far as a remedy for scepticism is found at all, Kant places it, not within theoretic knowledge, but in moral or " practical " Kant's experience . Pure knowledge, for man, moves among a world of shadows; duty is certain . Mansel charged Kant practical with inconsistency in this preferential treatment of the certainty . moral consciousness; all our knowledge, even in moral things, was " relative " and was " regulative."' But, whether consistent or inconsistent, Kant was deliberate in differentiating between the ethical and the theoretic knowledge of man . " See also:

• ANALYTIC (the adjective of " analysis," q.v.)

Analytic " or tautological thought does not become " synthetic " or capable of embracing a real content except under the sting of sensation; why sensation shoggld thus help it is obscure, yet the fact is See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain . But analytic thinking is victorious in morals, where the test of formal self-consistency distinguishes virtue from See also:

• VICE

vice . The good man is the perfectly rational or perfect self-consistent man; and that is a full account of virtue, though Kant professes to re-interpret it still further in a much more positive sense as implying the service of humanity .

True, at a later stage, the opposition of sense and thought reasserts itself strongly with Kant even in ethics . We are allowed moral certainty, but are forbidden the See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope of genuine moral victory . Just as our knowledge never can finish its task of reducing world-experience to an intelligible system, so our will is never once able perfectly to obey the law of reason . There is always a taint of feeling in man's goodness . This portion of the ethical theory does curious service in Kant's doctrine of religion . That doctrine runs, briefly, as follows . Duty must be accepted as a given certainty, or it is vindicated—unsatisfactorily enough, perhaps—in the way just explained . Next, from the certainty of duty we infer as our first moral postulate free will—" I can because I ought "; which, primarily at least, means " I know I can because I know I ought." But this strong assertion is greatly qualified when Kant recurs to what he considers the least discredited portion of our theoretical knowledge . In the world of phenomena, not freedom rules but determinism . Causality is one of the " categories " which our mind uses in See also:

• BUILDING

building up orderly experience . So we are left with a see-saw . Will is noumenally free; but phenomenally, in all real exercises of will, we are determined by the past .

Secondly: from the discrepancy between the pure abstract law of self-consistent reason and the See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure-tinged nature of man, we infer or postulate Immortality . As we never can See also:

• HIT

hit the See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

bull's See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye, we must have literally endless opportunities of aiming at it, so as to get indefinitely nearer the central spot . If we did hit the exact See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark, apparently we need no longer be immortal . Lastly, God . We must not, we dare not, aim at happiness . It is an eternal weakness in our moral being which makes us constantly See also:

• SQUINT (possibly connected with Swed. svinka, to flinch; 0. Eng. swiccan, avoid)

squint aside from the thought of duty towards the forbidden See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive—wincing under See also:

• PAIN (from Lat. poena, Gr. robin, penalty, that which must be paid: O. Fr. peine)
• PAIN, BARRY (1867– )

pain, or hungering after joy, Mansel's term for Kant's " practical." It must be carefully distinguished from Kant's " regulative," which refers to knowledge—regulative in contrast to constitutive of knowledge—not to practice . Yet, if the motive is forbidden us, it is plain from another point of view that good persons ought to be happy . And, as nature reveals no great care for this postulate, we must appeal away beyond nature to a power who shall make good men at the last as happy as they deserve to be . And this power is God . Such is the See also:

• TRAIN (M. Eng. trayn or trayne, derived through Fr. from Late Lat. trahinare, to drag, draw, Lat. trahere, cf. trail, trace, ultimately from the same source)

train of thought as stated for us in the Critique of Practical Reason . In the Critique of Judgment, Kant restates his new type of theistic argument in a way which has had great subsequent influence . We must conceive nature as overruled by God not so much Later for the sake of man's happiness as for the sake of his form; moral development .

Or, to state this as a theistic argu- ment: Cri we are See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound to postulate a God who overrules of '"',dg- the fqu nature for moral ends . This new statement has at least See also:

• MEAT

meat the merit of bringing God into See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch with man's good- ness as well as with his happiness . But the train of thought is deeply embedded among characteristic sceptical hesitations . In spite of the various details of the Judgment Critique (as to beauty; and as to the " See also:

• INTERNAL

internal " or as Hegel subsequently phrased it " immanent " adaptations seen in living organisms) Kant regards as extremely precarious all these hints of a higher view of nature . Nature as a machine, governed by changeless causal law, is necessary to thought . Were no such machine recognized, the See also:

• THREAD (0. Eng. praed, literally, that which is twisted, prawan, to twist, to throw, cf. " throwster," a silk-winder, Ger. drehen, to twist, turn, Du. draad, Ger. Draht, thread, wire)

thread of consciousness would be cut and orderly experience impossible; we must all go mad' But nature breathing of See also:

• LIFE

life, or of beauty, or, however faintly, of a God immanent in the whole process, and shaping it towards moral purposes—that is or may be no better than a subjective dream . It is doubly uncertain . It has inferior guarantees, as compared with our knowledge of the mechanism of nature . And, after all, not even our knowledge of the mechanism of nature is a knowledge of reality . Things as they truly are See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie wholly beyond our poor human vision . Kant then has broken away from intuitionalism by substituting one system of necessity for the many necessary truths or given experiences from which intuitionalism takes Kant's its start . But there are gaps in Kant's system—a imperfect See also:

• GAP

gap between sensation and the sense-forms of time untrca- and space; a gap between sense-forms and thought; tiO°' a gap between the lower but practicable processes of the Under-standing and the higher but unrealizable ideas of Reason .

And thus Kant's idealism is incomplete . On one side, the world we know by valid processes of thinking cannot, we are told, be the real world . Or, beginning from the other side; neither the reality which ideal thought reaches after, nor yet the reality which our conscience postulates, is the valid world of orderly thinking . The great critic of scepticism has diverged from idealism toward scepticism again, or has given his idealism a sceptical See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour,' mitigated—but only mitigated—by faith in the moral consciousness . If there arises a system of philosophy in which all truths are grasped in unit,y, and it is seen that the principles of things must be what they are, such a philosophy will give us in perfection the idealistic conception of reality and the idealistic guarantees of truth which Kant gave brokenly . The Absolute Idealism of G . W . F . Hegel was such a system . It ranks, up to our own See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, as the last of the great philosophies, and the boldest of all . Kant had fewer Hegel . isolated points of departure than intuitionalists; yet gaps and See also:

• ISOLATION

isolation recurred in Kant, and helped to make him the See also:

• FATHER

father of modern agnosticism .

In the later intuitionalism of Hamilton, recoiling from Hegel, the many subjective necessities of the intuitionalist scheme were made to breathe the new agnostic suggestions . We necessarily think as we do—but only because of our entangling faculties . It is a mental " See also:

• IMPOTENCE (Lat. impotentia, want of power)

impotence " that makes us believe in such a law as Cause and Effect . Kant had substituted one great necessity, sprung from an ideal source . Reason—under conditions of sensation—created the world of (valid) knowledge; Reason created the practical world of duty . But, having said this, Kant went on to repeat the sceptical suggestion . The whole coherent necessary world of his philosophy became " our world," as we necessarily think it, but not by any means of necessity the world as it is . Hegel brushes aside all these hesitations . His Philosophy of Nature—one of the least admired parts of his system—is the answer from his point of view to Kant's assertion that a " perceptive understanding " is for us impossible . Hegel offers a supposed proof that Time and Space, Matter, Nature, are ascertainable and definable This is Kant's positive refutation of Hume's scepticism . necessities in a reasonable universe . Rational system is the first and last word in this philosophy .

The element of givenness, dominant in empiricism, and partially surviving through intuitionalism even into Kant, is sublimated in Hegel's thinking . Everything is to be exhibited, in outline or in essence, as the working of necessary truth . You need not wish anything in the universe to be other than it is; as well grumble at once that two and two do not make five!' Hegel will allow no dualism of fact and principles . Nothing is See also:

• BARE

bare fact . Philosophy will show you that everything has to be so and so . The effect of this point of view in regard to moral perceptions is that they represent an important relative truth, but that philosophy " passes " beyond them " into a higher region, where imputation of See also:

• GUILT

guilt is " absolutely " meaningless "2 jenseits See also:

• DES

des Guten and Bosen . More peculiarly his own is Hegel's great doctrine The of See also:

• CONTRADICTION, PRINCIPLE OF (principium contradictionis)

contradiction, whereby opposing views of truth cia rank as stages in one progressive definition . We lectic" may explain this to ourselves as an extraordinarily method, vehement recoil from Kant's deification of formal See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic with its principle of " analytic " tautology . As a result, Hegel's system undertakes to show candid minds that incompatible assertions not only may but See also:

• MAST (2) (Anglo-Saxon maest, food, common to some Teutonic languages, and ultimately connected with " meat")
• MAST (I) (O. Eng. maest; a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. malus; from the medieval latinized form mast us comes Fr. malt)

mast both be true.' Through this unexpected and obscure principle of "dialectic "' Hegel claimed to fulfil his programme of interpreting everything as See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest necessary truth of ideal relationship . It all must be so and you see it must . Hegel wrote extensively upon religion, especially in his Philosophy of Religion . Yet it remains doubtful whether he was a Amhigut- theist with large pantheistic elements—such as every ties on speculative mind will be likely to incorporate in theism—religion. or a pantheist rejecting theism altogether .

We may regard his ambitious programme as the last logical development of idealism and indeed of philosophy itself . If perfect knowledge be possible for us, it must take the form of such a system as Hegel offers . If the world exists purely to be known, and if every other working of reason comes into See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration qua incomplete knowledge, Hegel is right with his sweeping intellectualism . Or at least he has rightly seen what are the assertions to aim at; it is difficult to accept the principle or method upon which his answer to the riddle proceeds, the dialectic method . Perhaps it was necessary for human thought to try how far it would carry out this programme . And yet perhaps full success was neither possible nor desirable . If such are our conclusions, we return fo a possible basis for theism not very far removed from that of intuitionalism . Certainly history shows that theism has generally been associated with some reduced or limited form of philosophy, usually with the intuitionalist scheme . It is not the first runnings of the stream of religious thinking which have given the world its theistic philosophies . Theism is an afterthought—the reply to doubt—the attempted reflective See also:

• JUSTIFICATION

justification of what announced itself at first as a prophetic certainty . But no more is theism the first runnings of the stream of philosophy . It is philosophy harnessed to a practical and religious interest .

It is philosophy called into See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court to answer selected questions . Theism then has its most habitual See also:

• AFFINITIES

affinities with intuitionalism, but may fall under any one of our philosophical or quasi philosophical types . We have distinguished three types or tendencies: empiricism, intuitionalism, idealism . They See also:

• DEAL

deal respectively with what is—partly with what is and partly with what roust be—with what must be . They are based on facts—upon facts in'the light of principles—upon principles purely and ultimately upon one principle . They claim probability—moral certainty—mathematical certainty . They incline to the Design Argument and Analogy—to the Cosmological argument (with other elements in a subordinate place) and proof by inference—to the Ontological argument . This last and boldest argument is a system of idealistic philosophy in a nutshell . ' " It may be asked, Why can God not create a triangle whose three angles shall not be equal to two right angles ? To See also:

• ABSTRACTION (Lat. abs and trahere)

abstraction and ignorance everything is possible." From notes of a class lecture by Dr E . Caird . s F H .

Bradley, Ethical Studies, p . 4 . J . E . MacTaggart (Studies in Hegelian Dfitalectic) contends that See also:

• DIRECT

direct contradiction is confined to the elemenkary portions of Hegel's Logic: but he does not deny its existence there, though his interpretation, could one accept it, softens the See also:

• PARADOX (Gr. treat, beyond, contrary to, Sofia, opinion)

paradox . ° Used by Kant sceptically of the limitations of reason, dialectic in Hegel becomes constructive, and scepticism itself becomes a stage in knowledge . When such a system is worked out in full detail, it essays or ought to essay a proof of the following points: (I) God or the Absolute necessarily exists; (2) He necessarily is what He is; (3) He or it necessarily manifests itself in the finite, (4) and necessarily manifests itself in just this finite which we know from experience . If philosophy is able to fill up that See also:

• PRO

pro-gramme, it justifies itself; it raises all belief to necessary truth; and whether its teaching be theistic or pantheistic, pantheism or theism, whichever turns out victorious, must henceforth rank as a demonstrated certainty . Again, these contrasted philosophies throw light upon the meaning of a posteriori and a priori in Kant and subsequent writers.' To empiricism, all is a posteriori . To in- "A postuitionalism, half is a posteriori and half a priori . To teriori" idealism, all is a priori . Not that a posteriori is denied, and"a or that idealism even in Hegel tries to evolve reality priori." out of the philosopher's inner consciousness .

Mere given fact may be the starting-point; but it is sublimated . We see by degrees—in general outline or upon general principles'—that what is is no other than what must be . There is another conception of necessity which has established itself in the history of science and philosophy . We may call it See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical necessity . If this conception is •'.1echaregarded as full and absolute truth, it involves nicainematerialism . When we recollect the empiricist start- cessity." See also:

• ING

ing-point of science, it is curious to observe with what vehemence the See also:

• AVERAGE

average man of science now rejects free will . To him, it cannot be true . See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William James stood almost alone in being prepared to go anywhere at the bidding of apparent facts, unconcerned about rational probabilities . On this ground James is a libertarian . The fact appears to be so; he reports it . Similarly, James is willing to believe in many universes nebeneinander or durclreinander but not [ineinander . Dualism, See also:

• PLURALISM (Lat. plus, plures, many, several)

pluralism, manifold parallel inconsistency may belong to the nature of fact .

Does our intelligence demand unity ? That may be a mere subjective See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy . Even polytheism,7 or some-thing indistinguishable from it, is suggested to this doggedly empiricist mind by the Varieties of Religious Experience; they are all good to those to whom they appeal; and what right have we to talk of See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective standards?' Ordinary " inductive " empiricism shows that it has travelled far from this unprejudiced credulity when it asserts its hard determinism—See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform law, never broken, never capable of being broken . But what is mechanical necessity, if we admit that in some sense it exists ? It is a relative necessity . The present and the future have to be what the past and the absent make them . Past events, " happening " to be what they were, have fixed subsequent processes to their channels . But you can never, at any one point, say, from the scientific or mechanical or materialistic standpoint, this " had to be."' The relative necessity never passes into an absolute one . A different primitive "collocation," as T . See also:

• CHALMERS, ALEXANDER (1759-1834)
• CHALMERS, GEORGE (1742-1825)
• CHALMERS, GEORGE PAUL (1836-1878)
• CHALMERS, JAMES (1841-1901)
• CHALMERS, THOMAS (1780-1847)

Chalmers i° put it, would have yielded, by the same process of natural law as ours, quite a different universe from ours." T . H . See also:

• HUXLEY, THOMAS HENRY (1825–1895)

Huxley admitted that this contention could not be ruled out as impossible .

Again, in the scheme of mechanism, everything is determined by everything else—in (i) Aristotle and the schoolmen meant by a proof a priori reasoning from cause to effect . (2) Kant is often supposed to mean by a priori—see Hamilton's Reid, p . 762—" innate " as opposed to " acquired from experience." (3) If we accept the suggestion offered above—that a priori in Kant and later thinkers =necessary—we place ourselves on the track which leads from intuitionalism to some form of idealism . 8 Why only in such general terms ? But this See also:

• LIMITATION, STATUTES OF

limitation is always taken for granted . 7 It does not seem as if James's " See also:

• PRAGMATISM

Pragmatism " could lend itself to anything so See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete as a theistic conclusion . 8 A very different thinker, Dr J . E . MacTaggart, works round from idealism to an eternal quasi polytheistic society of equal souls . 8 H . Spencer's " instability of the homogeneous " is perhaps an attempt to perform the impossible (First Principles, chap. xix.) . 10 Quoted in J .

S . Mill's Logic, and with fuller sympathy in W . S . See also:

• JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY (1835-1882)

Jevons's Principles of Science . " God has ordered the original " collocation "—a new statement of the argument which traces Design in nature . space as well as in time; nothing does anything for itself . Yet again, nature is broken up into co-operating parts; the whole is the sum of these parts; or, if you prefer to say so, there is no whole . But, if we should take the view that nature is infinitely extended—part of the " See also:

• ANTITHESIS (the Greek for " setting opposite ")

Antithesis " in Kant's first " See also:

• ANTINOMY (Gr. avri, against, v6uos, law)

Antinomy "—relative necessity breaks down on the last See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis, since boundless nature may overwhelm that sequence which we thought most securely established . Who can say what may emerge from an See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

infinite background ? We reach similar conclusions when we recognize that the laws of nature are general or hypothetical; not in Mill's sense (" If you had such a non-existent thing as three perfectly straight lines See also:

• UNITED

united in a triangle "), but in a sense noted in F . H . Bradley's Logic: " If " or " As often as you have the cause working unimpeded, you get the effect." Pure scientific theory cannot tell you when you have got such a cause, or whether you ever get it at all .

No law of nature contains in itself a promise that it shall pass into operation . Its doing so depends upon the totality of conditions . Materialism supposes that this mechanical order is the real world and the only real world—mechanical See also:

• MONISM (from Gr. µ6vos, alone)

monism.' Intuitionalism supposes that there are two realms—of necessity and freedom, of nature and will, of matter and mind; contiguous, See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent, yet interacting—dualism . Idealism in one way or other supposes that mind is more real than matter . And thus its first programme—All is in accordance with reason—may pass into the more doubtful programme All is reason, in one of the two forms (a) nothing exists but mind (e.g . Hegel, as often interpreted—pantheistically?) or (b) nothing exists but minds (e.g . Hegel, as interpreted by Dr MacTaggart) . Any-how, whatever the method or interpretation is to be, idealism, even more fully than materialism, is pledged to monism and to the rejection of dualism . The valid or scientific but See also:

• META

meta-physically untrustworthy knowledge, to which Kant shut us up, was knowledge of a mechanical universe . His reply to Kant's Hume was this—Mechanical See also:

• CAUSATION

causation is as real as reply to the unity of consciousness . It is false to suggest that See also:

• FLUME (through an O. Fr. word glum, from the Lat. "lumen, a river)

flume. sequence is a fact and causal connexion a figment; apart from causal connexion, there could be no consciousness of sequences . Over against this " valid " mechanism, in some truer but vaguer region, Kant placed free will; and so left things .

The English thinkers influenced by Hegel are inclined to assert mechanism unconditionally, as the very expression of reason—the only thinkable form of order . Thus libertarian free will has to disappear from their belief . In this interpretation of the universe, the difference between mechanical or relative necessity and absolute or ideal necessity is slurred, or dogmatically affirmed to be non-existent . It might be suggested in reply that free will, whether or not it be ultimate truth, is true to the same degree of analysis es mechanical necessity itself . Mechanism is that which obeys impulses from outside . It is profoundly unsatisfactory to regard mechanism as the whole ultimate truth . For such a role it is in no sense fitted . If it is ultimate truth in its own region, that region cannot be accepted as more than half the entire universe of reality (common sense intuitionalism; dualism) . If mechanical determination applies to the whole universe, it cannot be ultimate truth at all (cf . H . See also:

• LOTZE, RUDOLF HERMANN (1817-1881)

Lotze; more drastic in See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

Ward's See also:

• NATURALISM

Naturalism and Agnosticism) . Quite a different view of necessity is the moral necessity pointed to by Kant's " Practical Reason." And, as the symmorai ne- pathizers with Hegel try to force mechanical necessity cessity; into the garb of absolute or ideal necessity, so they Kant. seek to show that moral necessity is only an inferior form of absolute or ideal or, we might. say, mathematical necessity .

Theists, on the other hand, will contend that the distinctiveness of moral necessity is vital to religion . Thus we might restate our grouping of philosophies in terms of the views they take regarding necessity . Theism is directly interested in this, since it affirms the necessity of God's existence . ' See also:

• ERNST, HEINRICH WILHELM (1814–1865)

Ernst See also:

• HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH (1834- )

Haeckel will not allow us to call his system " Materialism," because he affirms that the rudiments of matter are also rudimentary " mind stuff " (to use W . K . See also:

• CLIFFORD
• CLIFFORD, JOHN (1836- )
• CLIFFORD, WILLIAM KINGDON (1845-1879)

Clifford's term) . But in spite of this its materialistic affinities are unmistakable . At least, it would be hard to name any school of theists which was content to affirm that there " happened " to be a God.' On the other hand, theism does not desire to see necessity—or See also:

• FATE

Fate—ranked as See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior to the living God . One great change and only one since Kant's day has affected the outlook upon theistic problems—the increasing belief in See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution . It is a manifest weakness in intuitionalism Evoluthat it finds such difficulty in leaving room for evolu- See also:

• ION

ion• tionary change . All men may perhaps be aiming everywhere at the same moral ideal,' but it is absurd to say that all men actually formulate the same moral judgments . On the other hand, many evolutionists ignore the certainty that there must be a continuum in any real evolutionary process .

In the light of that truth, a reformed intuitionalism might justify itself . But fuller conceptions of evolution raise further difficulties for intuitionalism in its wonted forms . Knowledge cannot be divided into the two components—immediate certainties, precarious inferences . The starting-point is reconsidered, modified, transformed, in the light of subsequent acquisitions . Knowledge grows, not by mechanical addition, but by organic transformation . This may help us to appreciate the meaning of Hegel's Dialectic . His thought then is not wholly paradox, whatever the expression may be . Hegel's system is, in its own way, a great evolutionary philosophy of an ideal type.' Evolution, repelled by the older intuitionalism, was thus incorporated in the greatest of all idealisms . It has also been largely applied to empiricism . Sometimes one questions whether empiricism is really still empiricist; so much of the a priori has come in under the name of evolution (e.g. in Herbert Spencer) . But the change, if it has taken place, is unrecognized . IV .

Greek philosophy for our purpose begins with Socrates, who formulated the Design Argument . His ethics have some-times been regarded as pure See also:

• UTILITARIANISM (Lat. utilis, useful)

utilitarianism (so e.g. outline H . See also:

• SCHULTZ, HERMANN (1836- )

Schultz); but it is surely significant that the great history idealism of Plato was See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed from his suggestions. of theism . The new method of definition which Socrates ap- socrates. plied to problems of human conduct was extended by Plato to the whole universe of the knowable . In the light of this, it may be possible (with J . R . See also:

• SEELEY
• SEELEY, SIR JOHN ROBERT (1834–1895)

Seeley in Ecce Homo) to call Socrates the " creator of science." The man who inspired Plato deserves that name . Those Ideas according Plato. to which all reality is objectively shaped—and there-fore too, as a modern would add, subjectively construed—include the idea of the Good, which Plato identifies with God . We might mislead ourselves if we interpreted this expression as referring to moral goodness; on the other hand, Plato more than most of the Greeks thinks of moral virtue as an See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation of God . With all its idealism, Greek thought had difficulty in regarding rational necessity as absolute See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master of the physical world . Matter was a potentially recalcitrant element . Hence there are tendencies even in Plato to build up the ideal world in See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp contrast to the actual world—to the half interpenetrated or half tamed world of matter .

His suggestions as to immortality are affected by this . The See also:

• BODY

body is the soul's See also:

• PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio, seizure)

prison . He teaches (whether suggestively, metaphorically or deliberately), pre-existence5 as well as survival; perhaps he is moved to this by non-Greek influences . Thus at several points Plato reveals germs of dualism and See also:

• ASCETICISM

asceticism . Free will had not yet been formulated as a problem . Aristotle has impressed the ordinary mind chiefly by his criticism of Plato's Arlstotie. ideal theory; and therefore he is often ranked as the father of empiricists . But those who treat him as the great s Still, Lotze's criticism of the cosmological argument reveals his realist side . On the other hand, in discussing the ontological argument, Lotze commits himself to a moral a priori (below, ad fin.) . " We are all embarked upon a troublesome world, the See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children of one Father, striving in many essential points to do and to become the same" (R . L . See also:

• STEVENSON, ADLA1 EWING (1835- )
• STEVENSON, ROBERT (1772-1850)
• STEVENSON, ROBERT LEWIS BALFOUR (1850-1894)

Stevenson) . ' The idea of evolution in time (physical evolution) was laughed at by Hegel .

' A belief hinted again at the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of See also:

• LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM (1729–1781)

Lessing's See also:

• EDUCATION

Education of this Human Race; also—more definitely—by J . E . MacTaggart (Studies in Hegelian Cosmology, p . 48; and elsewhere) . Realist make him almost if not quite intuitionalist; while there is also an idealist reading possible . The threatened dualism of ideal and material becomes for Aristotle mainly a contrast of matter and form; the lower stage in development desires or aims at the higher, matter more and more tending to pass into form, till God is form without any matter . But this God of Aristotle's is a See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold consciousness, imitated only by the contemplative virtue of the philosopher, not by the morally active See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen . And the chief contribution of Aristotle to theism is a theory, found in his Physics as well as his Metaphysics, of God as first mover of the universe, himself unmoved . This theory is generally ranked as the earliest See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance in European thought of the cosmological argument . Free will is shaping itself towards discussion in Aristotle's Ethics, but is hardly yet a formulated problem . For anything like personal immortality the medieval Schoolmen searched him anxiously but in vain . Epicureanism need not detain us .

It is a system of empiricism and materialism, remarkable only for teaching free will . Atoms swerved as they fell endlessly downwards, and thus introduced an indeterminate or irrational element into the processes of the world . Theism can take but little interest in this See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar type of free will doctrine, or again in See also:

• EPICURUS (342–270 B.C.)

Epicurus's professed See also:

• ADMISSION

admission of the existence of gods—made of atoms: inhabiting the spaces between the worlds; Stoicism careless of men . Stoicism is a much more important system, but harder to classify . Perhaps in the See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of thought where it is most in See also:

• EARNEST (probably a corruption of the obsolete arles or erles, adapted from Lat. equivalent arrha, due to a confusion with the adjective " earnest," serious, O. Eng. eornust, cognate with Ger. ernst)

earnest—in ethics—it is an idealism . It tells men to " obey reason " and crush See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion, or to live " according to nature." In physics—but in that region of speculation its positions are more perfunctory—it teaches pantheism on a quasi-materialistic basis . God is the soul of the world, although the gods of popular belief are (at least by the later Stoics) respectfully if exoterically acknowledged . Human survival is taught, but not ultimate immortality; and, as against Epicureanism, Stoicism on the whole tends to deny free will . There is perhaps a certain religious See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm in the thought of being passively determined by Fate, the Universe, Zeus . Finally, the Stoic analysis of the process of knowledge is sensationalist and empiricist . So far as a coherent body of theistic doctrine exists, it did not grow out of the great systems, but out of the lesser men who stood nearer to the See also:

• APPREHENSION (Lat. ad, to; prehendere, to seize)

apprehension of practical citizens . Perhaps the most important of these popular thinkers was See also:

• MARCUS

Marcus Tullius Cicero—no great philosopher, but a graceful and effective man of letters .

Cicero . It has been truly observed' that the lineaments of intuitionalism are very clear in him . He also gives us " natural law "2—a Stoic See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance, preserving the form of an idealist appeal to systematic requirements of reason, while practically limiting its assumptions to those of intuitionalism . Formally, Cicero adhered to the See also:

• ACADEMIC

Academic 3 philosophy during its " See also:

• MIDDLE

middle " or almost sceptical period . (The senses are so far from truth that we must be content with reaching probability.) In Cicero's De Nature Deorum the See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden of theism rests mainly on the Stoic interlocutor . The conclusion, " academically " recognizing the contendings of one disputant as more " probable," is imitated in D . Hume's Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion . In the great Roman Stoics—See also:

• SENECA

Seneca, See also:

• EPICTETUS (born c. A.D. 6o)

Epictetus; less material for theism perhaps Seneca. in Marcus Aurelius—we see the partial softening and religious deepening of the system, and a doctrine of the See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise man's power over passion and circumstance which has all the essentials of See also:

• LIBERTARIANISM (from Lat. libertas, freedom)

Libertarianism . See also:

• PHILO
• PHILO, HERENNIUS

Philo of See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria should also be PhOo. mentioned . He blends the tradition of the Old Testa- ment with Greek philosophy, and, within the latter, exhibits that See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of See also:

• PLATONISM

Platonism with Stoicism, especially in the doctrine of the See also:

• LOGOS (X4os)

Logos, which became dominant in the Christian apologists and the great theologians of the ancient church . Philo is Greek enough to believe in the eternity of matter; otherwise he preserves the main outlines of Old Testament theism . He teaches free will and immortality; and the design and cosmological arguments are both traceable in him .

Augustine of See also:

• HIPPO

Hippo trans- mits a type of Platonism as part of his See also:

• LEGACY (Lat. legatum)

legacy to the tine . Western church . Against Manichaean dualism he had vindicated free will; but as against Pelagianism he taught the bondage of sinful man—a position accepted in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East but never welcome there, and not more than half welcome even in the West From this theological entanglement the problem of free will did not See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape for long centuries . In spite of some waverings towards what has lately been called " conditional immortality " (see APOLOGETICS) the doctrine of " natural immortality " championed by Augustine became dominant in the church; an instalment of what was afterwards to be called Natural Theology; and a postulate or presupposition to-day—like free will—in Roman Catholic apologetics . r D . G . Ritchie, Natural Rights, p . 36. z See above (ad init.) . The middle ages, in the person of See also:

• ANSELM
• ANSELM (c. 1033-1109)

Anselm of See also:

• CANTERBURY
• CANTERBURY, CHARLES

Canterbury, See also:

• CON

con-See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute the first clear form of the Ontological argument for theism . If our grouping of philosophies, as given above, is sound, Middle every idealist scheme contains potentially an ontologi- ages. cal argument . In other words; whenever philosophy teaches a doctrine of the Absolute, and regards such doctrine as valid and certain, we have the essence of an ontological or a priori argument . Of course it remains debatable whether this philosophical Absolute is necessarily interpreted as a personal God, or perhaps even whether logically it can be .

But the Christian See also:

• BIAS
• BIAS (from the Fr. biais, of unknown origin; the derivation from Lat. bifax, two-faced, is wrong)

bias is sure to make theologians, who borrow a doctrine of the Absolute, interpret it in a Christian sense; hence we may consider it some-thing of an accident that even an Augustine fails exactly to put the argument in form . Anselm tells us that a most perfect being must exist, since the perfection which includes existence is manifestly greater than a perfection confined to an object of thought . Some of the impression of paradox here is due to Anselm's treating the Absolute simply as one among many other beings, and to his treating existence simply as one element in the quantitative sum of perfections . At least, idealist philosophy will hold that the substance if not the form of the argument is sound' though the question of its interpretation remains . In Anselm's case we have the further sanguine hope of justifying not theism merely but all Christian doctrine to the scientific reason . Thomas Aquinas, following Albertus See also:

• MAGNUS, HEINRICH GUSTAV (1802-1870)

Magnus, but with greater power and greater influence, occupies substantially intuitionalist ground . He will not have the Ontological argument; but he asserts Natural Law, and relies upon the cosmological and design arguments—with various refinements and distinctions, differently stated in his two Summae . In declaring the supreme doctrines of Christianity to be mysteries above reason, he marks off a lower region where reason is to reign; the study of that lower region may well be called, as later centuries have called it, Natural Theology ; and as such it presents strong intuitionalist affinities . The critics of Aquinas—See also:

• DUNS

Duns Scotus and the later Nominalists—show some tendency towards rational scepticism . They exercise their acumen in multiplying difficulties; but all such questionable doctrines are presently re-established from a different point of view as truths of faith or findings of church authority . The Church of Rome has discouraged these daring See also:

• TACTICS (Gr. TaeTOc*, sc. TEXvnI, from TavQecv, to arrange in order of battle)

tactics in favour of the more cautious and probably more defensible positions of Aquinas . In Raymond of Sabunde s form of moral argument—there must be a God to See also:

• REWARD

reward and punish, if human life is not to be " vain "—we see the kinship of that argument to the argument from design .

Rene See also:

• DESCARTES, RENE (1596-1650)

Descartes, a faithful though not an unsuspected Roman Catholic, founded modern philosophy by his starting- point of universal doubt and by his arguments in Descartes, reply . One may regard him as an idealist, though Scottish intuitionalism—especially in the writings of Professor John See also:

• VEITCH, JOHN (1829-1894)

Veitch—has claimed him for its own; and indeed Descartes's two substances of active mind and passive extended matter are very much akin to " Natural Dualism." Still, Descartes has marked idealist traits, as when he refurbishes the ontological argument with clearer emphasis on the perfect being as "necessarily" existents—reasoning a shade less quantitative or a shade more subtle than Anselm's . Descartes's preliminary statement of the argument in somewhat popular form brings it very near the lines of the cosmological proof.' There must be a cause for nature, but particularly for the idea of perfection in us—that cause must be God . The See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical side of Descartes appears again in his offering his own type of theism as a substitute for the old proofs—not a supplement . Design especially was under suspicion with him . He was even more definitely opposed to " final causes " than Francis Bacon, who excluded them from science but admitted them to theology . All this was connected with zeal for physical and mathematical science . Descartes was an See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert; Bacon was the See also:

• PROPHET (Irpo4i ri7s)

prophet of a great, if half comprehended, future; and the science they loved was struggling for its See also:

• INFANT (in early forms enfaunt, enfant, through the Fr. enfant, from Lat. infans, in, not, and fans, the present participle of fari, to speak)

infant life against a See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of traditional prejudices, which sought to foreclose every question by confident assertions about the purposes of God and Nature . A difficult question arose for Descartes's philosophy, when it had to explain the union in man of the absolutely opposite substances, ' Cf . J . E . MacTaggart in regard to Hegel, Studies in Hegelian Cosmology, chap. iii .

' So Meditation 5, at least in the French version . Again : " Existence cannot be separated from the essence of God "; compare See also:

• SPINOZA, BARUCH (1632-1677)

Spinoza's ethics, definition i ; " By causa sui I understand that the essence of which involves existence, or that which by its own nature can only be conceived as existing." Meditation 3 . 3 Platonic . mind and matter . See also:

• MALEBRANCHE, NICOLAS (1638-1715)

Malebranche gave all causation to God; and the acosmist—as Hegel called him, in repudiation of See also:

• BAYLE, PIERRE (1647-1706)

Bayle's See also:

• NICKNAME

nickname " atheist "—Spinoza, from the premises of See also:

• CARTE, THOMAS (1686-1754)

Carte-Spinoza. sianism, and from other suggestions of the past, developed that great system of determinist pantheism which was a See also:

• SCANDAL

scandal and a terror to his See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation . Really, he urged, there could be only one substance—Descartes himself had dropped a passing hint to that effect—and the bold deductive reasoning of Spinoza's Ethics, in process if not in result, betrays its kinship to the ontological argument, with its See also:

• AFFIRMATION (from Lat. affirmare, to assert)

affirmation of what must be . Thought and See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension are peaceable attributes in this one substance; there are infinitely many other attributes, but these only are known to us . In a different region, the tradition of Descartes passes on to G . W . Leibnitz . He accepts the ontological argument with a Letbnttz, qualification—almost like his See also:

• DISCIPLE

disciple Wolff, who tries to use it for defining the divine attributes . Leibnitz's 1lonadology—which has little influence on his theism—may be viewed as a strong recoil from Spinoza's all-swallowing substance .

The more Spinozistic side of Leibnitz's thought—God as See also:

• MONAD (Gr. µovas, unit, from µovos, alone)

Monad of Monads—is a theistic postulate if hardly a theistic proof . The free will which Leibnitz teaches is not libertarian but determinist . Each monad works out necessary results, but these flow from its own nature; and so in a sense it is free . Reciprocal See also:

• ACTION

action is explained away into a " pre-established See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony " between every monad and all others . In his Theodicy Leibnitz argues, like not a few predecessors, that this universe must be regarded as the best of all possible universes . Pain and See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

sin must have been reduced to a minimum by God; though they are so ingrained in the finite that we have to make up our minds even to the endless sin and endless punishments of See also:

• HELL (0. Eng. hel, a Teutonic word from a root meaning " to cover," cf. Ger. Holle, Dutch hel)

hell . It has been truly said that such optimism is a profound relative See also:

• PESSIMISM (from Lat. pessimus, worst)

pessimism . The best ? Yes, perhaps the best possible; in See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar speech, the best of a very See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad business . But why must universes be so bad ? Leibnitz's philosophy has no answer for us . In another direction, Leibnitz—and Wolff—give emphasis to the contrast between the necessary and the contingent ; with important results for popular philosophy, Rotfi, and indirectly for theism .

The disciple, Christian Wolff, is one of the most typical figures in the history of theistic thought . He is a pure scholastic . The great thoughts of his master—or perhaps indeed rather Leibnitz's secondary thoughts—are dried and pressed by him, labelled and catalogued . Monadology drops out of Wolff's teaching . Pre-established harmony drops out--except that it is used to explain the union of soul and body . Wolff tells us that six Latin works contain his system:-See also:

• ONTOLOGY (adapted from a modern Latin form ontologia used by Jean le Clerc 1692; Gr. 6v, Evros, pres. part. of dam, to be, and klryos, science)

Ontology, General Cosmology, Empirical Psychology, Rational Psychology, Natural Theology, i.; Natural Theology, ii . In the See also:

• VOLUME

volume on Empirical Psychology, Wolff discusses free will . He decides that human actions are caused or determined by the nature of the See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent, but that, as man is not a necessary being, his actions are contingent . This view seems to preserve all that is questionable in Libertarianism, while omitting its moral meaning . The Rational Psychology formulates immortality on the ground that the immaterial soul has no parts to suffer decay— the argument which Kant's Critique of Pure Reason " refutes " with special reference to the statement of it by Moses Mendelssohn . The earlier of the two volumes on Natural Theology relies on the cosmological argument; the later--obviously an afterthought—tries to vindicate the onto-logical argument as an alternative basis for theism, but awkwardly and with manifest uneasiness . In the end, this See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot dispute whether God existed; but what he was—that was volume diverges into the Attributes, construing God in the I the hard question .

This See also:

• TREATISE

treatise must not be confused with likeness of man via eminentiae.2 No writer can be less intrinsi- the Natural History of Religion, in which Fume acts as a See also:

• PIONEER

pioneer for comparative religion, with its study of facts . Even in that book Hume is able to See also:

• PLAY

play with sceptical solutions . Religion See also:

• BEAN (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Bohne)

bean in fear—as if it were no more than a lying superstition . Of course once more Hume saves himself by strong professions of admiration for rational or natural religion . It was not yet socially safe to be a confessed religious sceptic . 3 And against similar views in Lord Herbert of Cherbury- and he is also tolerably characteristic in outlook . He is no, intuitionalist; but he is a drily common-sense mind, piling up in heaps the ruinous fragments of an idealist system . In England, empiricist thought found a prophet in Bacon . He draws no inferences to theology or religion, whether friendly or hostile, from his new positions . He takes the line Bacon. of separating the things of God from those of See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar, and defends the traditional Protestant theology with obvious sincerity . Thomas See also:

• HOBBES, THOMAS (1588–1679)

Hobbes, a rough and anomalous but vigorous thinker, is the fountainhead of a more formidable Hobbes. empiricism . He is almost a materialist .

In ethics, he is a hard determinist and hedonist, though not without qualifications (man's boundless desire for " gain and See also:

• GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory ") and peculiarities . He saves himself theologically by affirming that the good citizen will be of the same faith as the government —which had best be a See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy . In that sense, living under a professedly Christian ruler, Hobbes himself is a Christian . John Locke, the real father of English philosophy, Locke. took the field against what he regarded as Descartes's impossible programme of " Innate Ideas." 3 But Locke is a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double-minded or half-hearted philosopher . He admits two See also:

• SOURCES

sources of knowledge—sensation and reflexion; and God is to him the Great First Cause, especially of our own existence (or of the existence of finite minds) . This is a form of the cosmological argument, and ought to go with an intuitionalist not an empiricist doctrine of causality . On ethics, Locke says very little, although that little is hedonist and determinist . But once again in his political writings he breaks away from empiricism in appealing to natural law—an intuitionalist or conceivably an idealist tradition . Locke is thus a sensationalist and empiricist, but incompletely, and without perfect coherence . His suggestions led to different developments . In See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, through See also:

• CONDILLAC, ETIENNE BONNOT DE (1715—178o)

Condillac, the inconsistencies were purged Condtl/ac out, and materialism was ready for the next comer and ma- to affirm—though it may be said with R . See also:

• MINT
• MINT (Lat. moneta; Mid. Eng. mynt)

Mint terinusm• that while materialism requires sensationalist psychology, yet the psychology in question allows no valid inference to matter, and therefore destroys materialism .

Bishop See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George Berkeley, afraid of materialistic developments from a Berkeley. philosophy he was not prepared fully to recast, took See also:

• REFUGE

refuge in immaterialism . Locke had treated ideas as testifying to the existence of matter . But can they ? The inference seemed unwarrantable . Why should not God, a spirit like our own, though greater, speak to us in this language ? In See also:

• ALCIPHRON

Alciphron or the See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

Minute Philosopher Berkeley gives the fullest statement of this argument, while adding more See also:

• COMMONPLACE

commonplace attacks on the pettiness of religious scepticism . David Hume, following up Berkeley's leading suggestion, pointed flume. out that the inference to God is as precarious as the inference to matter, and that the assertion of a continuous or immaterial mind in man also goes beyond the immediate facts . The truth is, that all truth is uncertain ! Scepticism, with which P . Bayle had played as a historian—he amused himself, too, with praising the Manichaean See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution of the riddle of the universe—became a serious power in the history of philosophy with the See also:

• ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

advent of David Hume . Still, it may be doubted how far Hume was in earnest . See also:

• NAY, or NEY

Nay, it may be questioned how far it is either psychologically or logically possible to turn general scepticism into a coherent doctrine .

The Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion constitute Hume's formal profession of religious faith . The existence of God was no doubt probable; but what a number of difficulties there were ! Still, one would 'ally worthy of study than Wolff . But he is immortal as the Pan against whom Kant directed his tremendous See also:

• BATTERY (Fr. batterie, from battles, to beat)

battery ;2 ' Human attributes magnified, or their weak points thon^ht away . The Schoolmen sought to establish other divine attributes by negation of human weaknesses and by finding in God the cause of the varied phenomena of creation . 2 On one side; another battery of Kant's was aimed against Hume . Samuel Clarke, who defendttl See also:

• NEWTON
• NEWTON, ALFRED (1829–1907)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1725-1807)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1823-1895)
• NEWTON, SIR CHARLES THOMAS (1816-1894)
• NEWTON, SIR ISAAC (1642-1727)

Newton's view of the world against Leibnitz's strictures, is perhaps chiefly interesting to Butler, us as one of the authorities of Bishop Joseph Butler . It is Clarke's defence of free will, Clarke's idealist theory of eternal " fitness " as the basis of ethical distinctions, perhaps Clarke's teaching on immortality, that Butler regards as " the common known arguments " and authoritative enunciations of truth in the regions of philosophy or Natural Theology) . Butler himself occupies a peculiar position in more respects than one . He has profoundly influenced British thinking, but is little known abroad . He is difficult to classify . We may be helped in assigning him his proper place if we observe that, almost invariably, he accepts certain beliefs which he forbears to See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press .

Thus in his most important contribution to ethics, the Three Sermons on Human Nature—i., ii., iii. of the Sermons—he grants the validity of an appeal to " nature " upon the lines of a sort of Stoical idealism, but for his own part he prefers the humbler appeal to human nature . He makes the issue, as far as possible, a question of fact . We, from the altered modern point of view, 'may doubt whether Butler's curious account of the mechanism of moral psychology is a simple See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report of facts . There are (a) given instinctive " propensions "; (b) a part of higher principles, " benevolence " and " rational self-love," equally valid with each other, though at times they may seem to conflict; (c) there is the master principle of con-science, which See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges between motives, but does not itself constitute a motive to action . Butler is opposing the psycho-logical hedonism 2 of Hobbes . He does not find it true to experience that man necessarily acts at the dictation of selfish motives . But Butler—for reasons satisfactory to himself, and eminently characteristic of the man; he hoped to conciliate his age!—dwells so much upon the rewards of goodness, as bribes (we must almost say) to rational self-love, that some have called Butler himself an ethical hedonist; though his See also:

• SERMON (Lat. sermo, a discourse)

sermon on the " Love of God " ought surely to free him from that charge . In all this, Butler was convinced that he was giving a simple. statement of facts . Any one introspectively apprehending the facts must See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

grant, he thought, that benevolence was an integral part of human nature and that con-science was rightfully supreme . This reveals the empiricist See also:

• TEMPER (from Lat. temperare, to mingle or compound in due proportion, to qualify, rule, regulate, to be moderate, formed from tempos, time, fit or due season)

temper, and points to an attempted empiricist solution of great problems . Butler holds that more ambitious philosophies are valid, but he shrinks from their use . The same thing is seen again in the Analogy .

Butler divests himself in this book of the principles of " See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty " and " moral fitness " in which personally he believes.3 Part i. of this book shows the " Analogy " of " Natural Religion " to the " Constitution and Course of Nature." Probably " Nature " is here employed in a more familiar or humbler sense than in the passing reference in the Sermons . The Analogy means by " nature," indisputable human experience . Deists believed in a God of unmixed benevolence; Butler's contention is that See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice, See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment, hell-See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire itself are credible in their similarity to the known experiences of man's life upon See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth . What the Three Sermons sought to find written small within—a law of inflexible justice or righteousness—part i. of the Analogy seeks to discover written in larger characters without us . Butler is charged by Sir Leslie Stephen with arguing illegitimately—professing to make no appeal to " moral fitness," and yet contending that the facts of human life show (the beginnings of) moral retribution for good and evil . Assuredly Butler did not mean to give up his right of speaking about moral evil and good when he waived the " high priori " method of vindicating their real existence . Yet it is a very See also:

• GRAVE

grave question whether the idea of God's moral government admits of being argued as pure matter of fact . Butler tries to do this . You call it unjust, he says in effect, that you should be punished . You argue, for example, that you have no free will . Well, what of ' Analogy, part i. chap. i . (" the natural and moral proofs of a future life commonly insisted upon ") ; last sentence of part i., Conclusion (" the proper proofs of [natural] religion from our moral nature," &c.) ; part ii. chap. viii. sub fin., " the proof " of religion, " arising out of the two .

. . principles of liberty and mbral fitness." 2 These useful distinctions are stated and well explained in W . R . Sorley's Ethics of Naturalism . Analogy, iii. chap. viii.; following S . Clarke?that ? Does it not look very much as though you were being punished ? Does not nature seem to treat you as if you had free will ?' One thing more should be noted about Butler . He nowhere formally argues for the truth of theism . He will not See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste time upon triflers who deny what he thinks, in the light of the (empiricist!) Design argument, an absolutely clear truths On the whole then Butler in personal conviction is an intuitionalist, wavering towards the idealism of his age; but in argument he is an empiricist, trying to reason every question as one of given facts . None the less, in the issue, it is the very element which goes beyond an appeal to facts—it is the See also:

• DEPTH

depth and purity of Butler's moral nature—which fascinates the reader, and wins praise from Matthew Arnold or Goldwin See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith or even Leslie Stephen . Precisely because he goes beyond phenomenal sequences, it is impossible to fling him aside unheard . On the other hand, no Christian, and perhaps no theist, is interested in maintaining that Butler grasps the whole truth .

At the most we might say this: If theism is a growing doctrine, Butler in England like Kant in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany stands for a fresh ethical emphasis . Stephen accuses Butler of reasoning in a circle . The things which make for our ultimate welfare are the things we call morally good . No wonder if they prove to involve happiness; that is their definition ! But is it ? Does not Stephen himself rather say that morally good things are conditions of social, not personal welfare ? Butler's argument is that the individual suffers (and feels that he suffers deservedly) from neglecting these If George See also:

• ELIOT, CHARLES WILLIAM (1834– )
• ELIOT, GEORGE
• ELIOT, JOHN (1604-1690)
• ELIOT, SIR JOHN (1592-1632)

Eliot is guilty of a platitude when she says that " consequences are unpitying," then Butler's argument is empty: but not other-wise . Butler on the soul may be studied in chap. i. of the Analogy—where we observe the old See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption of an immaterial and so immortal principle—and in his appendix on Personal Identity Wherever moral postulates make their presence felt, Butler's doctrine of man, as of God, leaps into new vigour . It is a See also:

• MOOT

moot point whether S . Clarke's Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God is really a priori . Clarke appeals to the immensity of time and space as involving infinity in God . A modification of his views is the starting-point of W .

H See also:

• GILLESPIE, GEORGE (1613-1648)
• GILLESPIE, THOMAS (1708-1774)

Gillespie's able Argument a priori for the Being and Attributes of the Godhead, published part by part 1833-1872 . We find something curiously similar in James Martineau's Study of Religion (" Implicit Attributes of God as Cause," sub fin.) . One might also compare J . R . Seeley's Natural Religion—though he is no decided champion of a personal God—and F . Max Milller's Gifford Lectures . Dismissing his earlier intuitionalism, in order, like Butler, to conciliate an empiricist age, M . Muller tried to show that even sense experience throws us on the Infinite—which for him was the kernel of the idea of God . He therefore appealed to the Indian goddess Aditi or Immensity, a deity connected with a set of personal gods called Adityas . Looking into the immensity of space, man also looks into the depths of godhead . Whatever one may think of the cogency of such arguments, it seems safe to conclude that thinkers, who dislike constructive idealism, but accept time and space as boundless given quanta, reach in that way the thought of infinity, and if they are theists, necessarily connect their theism with reflexions on the nature of Time and Space . We have already spoken of Kant's peculiar philosophical positions .

One result of these is a very damaging attack upon traditional theism . Kant puts together, as belonging Kant as to " Rational Theology," three arguments—he is critic of fond of triads, though they have not the significance theism. for him which they came to have for Hegel . Then he attacks the arguments, one after another . Is there anything fresh in the attack ? Or is it simply a reiteration of his sceptical contrast between phenomena and noumena, and of his confinement of (valid) knowledge to the former ? Perhaps the attack on cause as used in the cosmological argument is independent of Kant's philosophical peculiarities . The argument affirms a first cause, or uncaused cause . Does it not then deny rather than assert universal causation ? But that special criticism is a question of detail . A more entirely novel and more general principle of Kant's attack upon theism is the See also:

• CHALLENGE (O. Fr. chalonge, calenge, &c., from Lat. calumnia, originally meaning trickery, from calvi, to deceive, hence a false accusation, a " calumny ")

challenge of our right to build up the idea of God See also:

• BIT (from the verb " to bite," either in the sense of a piece bitten off, or an act of biting, or a thing that bites or is bitten)

bit by bit out of different arguments . The arguments had been regarded as alternative or else as cumulative proofs, all pointing to one conclusion—God exists . Kant insists that they are incompatible with each " Part ii. of the Analogy tries similarly to establish Christianity as credible matter of fact, sufficiently analogous to known facts of experience (APOLOGETICS) apart from any moral " value judgments " (as Ritschlians might say) .

s See (e.g.) ii. chap. ix . The Three Sermons also point to ..a moral argument for theism, but forbear to press it (Sermon ii.; when the third sense of the word " Nature " is being explained) . 26 other . They offer alternative and mutually exclusive conceptions of God . If the God of the cosmological argument is the " Great First Cause," we have no right to identify him with the " Most real being " of the Ontological argument . If the God of the Design argument seems a limited being, working as an artist upon given materials,' he is hardly God at all . Kant takes for granted that we cannot sum up these imperfect conceptions in a wider reconciling truth . It is a shrewd criticism, but needs arguing out . A great deal of popular theism is undoubtedly hard hit by it; for popular theism is apt to throw its arguments together in very random See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion . It is no more than characteristic of Kant's whole speculative philosophy that he should think the Ontological argument the one which comes nearest to success (yet the Ontological argument is held to prove—or rather to point out—not that God must exist, but that we think of him as necessary if we think of him as existing at all) . As a result of this, Kant is metaphysically a sort of pantheist . The God whom all our thinking feels after is the all-inclusive system of reality .

On the other hand, Kant's religion is of a type which requires a sort of deistic God, standing outside the world and constraining it into moral paths, or standing outside our moral struggles and re-warding our goodness . Butler fears profoundly that there must be a just God who will punish us . Kant hopes, with tolerable strength of conviction, that there may be a just God who will reward us . The main line in pure philosophy runs on from Kant's wavering and sceptical idealism to the all-including gnosis of Hegel.' Hegel on Hegel inherits from Kant the three arguments, and theistic takes them as stages in one developing process of argu- thought . The cosmological argument points to ments. nature-pantheism, with the religions—especially those of India—which embody that attitude of mind . This involves a re-interpretation of the Cosmological argument, or a criticism of the view ordinarily taken of it . Trace out the See also:

• CLUE

clue of causation to the end, says Hegel in effect, and it introduces you, not to a single first cause beyond nature, but to the totality of natural process—a substance, as it were, in which all causes inhere . This is a suggestion which deserves to be well weighed . The Design argument is held to give a contrasted view . It suggests in every See also:

• DEED (in O. Eng. dead, from the stem of the verb " to do ")

deed a personal but limited God, or a number of Gods—" Religions of spiritual Individuality," including, along with "Judaism," the anthropomorphic religions of See also:

• GREECE

Greece and Rome . Finally the Ontological argument sums up the truth in the two previous arguments, and gives it worthier utterance in its vision of the philosophical Absolute . This is the last word of religious truth, though pure philosophy stands still higher .

And, in some sense not clearly explained, Hegel identifies this final religion with Christianity . The theism of Hegel is ambiguous.' Later theists may be grouped according as their thought has been remoulded or not Theism by the influences of Kant . The distinguished after writers, whom we have to regard as repeating in Kant. essence pre-Kantian theories, generally know Kant, and frequently show traces of him in detail . But it is a plain finding of history that he has brought no " Copernican revolution"' to their minds . Empiricism is restated by Paley, who is Kant's younger con-temporary as a man and also on the whole as a writer . Doubt-Paley less less the archdeacon knew nothing of the German professor, and would have cared nothing for him how-ever well he had known him . A much more significant figure is that of J . S . Mill in the tentative approach to theism found in his See also:

• POSTHUMOUS

posthumous volume (Three Essays on Religion; 1874) . ' The Design argument has mainly to do with living bodies . Might one suggest that organisms seem at least to be a working up of inorganic matter for new ends, viz. those of life ? 2 The idealisms of See also:

• FICHTE, IMMANUEL HERMANN (originally HARTMANN) VON (1797-1879)
• FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1762-1814)

Fichte and See also:

• SCHELLING, FRIEDRICH WILHELM JOSEPH VON (1775-1854)
• SCHELLING, KAROLINE (1763-1809)

Schelling made contributions to Hegel's thought; See also:

• KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1781—1832)

Krause and the Roman Catholic See also:

• BAADER, FRANZ XAVER VON (1765–1841)

Baader represent parallel if See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor phases of idealism .

' Equally so the Hegelian attitude towards personal immortality . Such as Kant claimed to effect: Critique of Pure Reason, See also:

• PREFACE (Med. Lat. prefatia, for classical praefatio, praefari, to speak beforehand)

preface to znd ed . Mill directs his attention to the Design argument . The inference that organized bodies are due to an intelligent cause is only reached by the " Method of Agreement "—a full , S . Mill. inductive proof requiring, according to Mill's Logic, the " Method of Difference." Still, the Design argument is a good See also:

• SAMPLE (through the O. Fr. essemple, from Lat. exemplum; a doublet of " example ")

sample of a proof by means of the inferior method . Although nothing more than probability is established, it is a high probability.' Unfortunately, however, the method of agreement is liable to be baffled by " See also:

• PLURALITY (0. Fr. pluralitd, Late Lat. pluralitas, plural number)

plurality of causes." In this instance it may happen that the work of intelligence has only been mimicked in nature by See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind forces which have accidentally produced organic life; and Mill is disposed to hold that if the evolution of See also:

• SPECIES

species should be clearly established as due to natural law—if there has been no creation by special interposition—the argument falls to the ground and theism (apparently) is lost.' A further point is of some interest . If Mill's theism holds, what is it ? The belief in a God of limited power . That is what Kant contended that the Design argument pointed to, and Mill, proceeding on the Design argument, claims nothing more for his conclusion . Of course that was not Mill's special or conscious motive for denying divine omnipotence . His extreme sensitiveness and hatred of pain constrained Mill to hold that, if a good God exists, he cannot possess infinite power . Yet the See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence between Mill's conclusion and what Kant had alleged to be implied in the underlying metaphysical position is very striking indeed .

Intuitionalism also has its restatements of theistic reasoning little modified by Kant . R . Flint's theism carefully excludes the early random talk (e.g . Cicero) of an intuitive or _ Intuition. innate knowledge of God . What is self-evident, Flint alism re-justly remarks, neither needs nor admits of argument. peated; We have intuitions of cause, of infinity, of good and Flint. evil . The Cosmological argument proves, with the help of the first-named intuition, that there is one great First Cause; and the Design argument shows the First Cause to be intelligent or personal . The Ontological argument, though not wholly rejected as a proof, is taken rather as pointing to God's attribute of infinity; thought rather than experience making affirmation that the intuition in question must be attached to God . The moral argument, relying upon the third intuition named, certifies us of a good God . In this way, the attributes are suggestively allotted among the four traditional proofs;' but we miss an explicit rebutting of Kant's hostile assumption, that it is in-competent for us to take the thought of God piecemeal . Martineau's Study of Religion is also essentially intuitionalist . It has two parts: " God as cause " and " God as See also:

• MAR, EARLDOM OF
• MAR, JOHN ERSKINE, 1ST OR 6TH EARL OF (d. 1572)
• MAR, JOHN ERSKINE, 2ND OR 7TH EARL
• MAR, JOHN ERSKINE, 6TH OR 11TH EARL OF (1675-1732)

mar- perfection." The Design argument comes in as a ilneau. special See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration or intensification of the former of these, i.e. of the cosmological proof; but Martineau follows a side modification of intuitionalism (Maine de Biran, &c.) in identifying cause with will . This involves a very high doctrine of Libertarianism .

The only ultimate cause is God . Nature exists over against Him; but its forces or processes are His own power in immediate exercise, except in so far as God has delegated freedom to human See also:

• WILLS, WILLIAM GORMAN (1828-1891)

wills; and there follows a theodicy, repeating Leibnitz in more modern form . Martineau's two main proofs yield two sets of attributes; those known as " natural " and " moral," R . See also:

• BROWNING, ELIZABETH BARRETT (z8o6-r861)
• BROWNING, OSCAR (1837- )
• BROWNING, ROBERT (1812-1889)

Browning's " power " and " love." In " God as perfection " Martineau handles the basis of ethics without reference to his own modification of the intuitionalist position (Types of Ethical Theory), according to which " good " is the better or the best . We may infer that, whatever the merits of that modification, it does not affect the theistic problem . Martineau's Study also includes a section upon Immortality . The Ontological argument is omitted; but we have already observed that there is a discussion of divine ' Paul See also:

• JANET, PAUL (1823—1899)

Janet's Final Causes seems to follow Mill in this (" the fact of Finality "), but without naming him . 6 Janet naturally is in opposition here . Ultimately, he argues, if not immediately, there must be a rational cause to account for so rational an effect . But again of course Mill is not named . ' The three which Kant criticized, with the addition of the moral argument, which he favoured . 26 infinity in relation to time and space which from one point of view is parallel to the Ontological argument .

Definite theism, bearing the mark of Kant's thought through-out, is found in See also:

• HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB (1772–1848)
• HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1804–1855)

Hermann Lotze . From the point of view of Definite our grouping, he is an idealist of anomalous type . theistic He begins as an empiricist or realist, with given idealism; matter-of-fact; but from time to time (e.g. in his Lotze . Microcosmus) he makes readjustments without perhaps very clearly informing the reader what is being done, and in the end he is unmistakably idealist . While a pronounced theist—though not a church Christian—he is hardly less an assailant of traditional theism than Kant (e.g. his Outline [Lecture headings] on Philosophy of Religion) . He dissents as a realist from the Cosmological argument in the form' in which it concludes from " contingent " to " necessary " being . We do not wish to find our way to a being who " must be." That is an idle dream . We must keep to real and assured facts . Lotze was a man of considerable attainments in special science; perhaps he reveals here the bias of the scientific mind, and possibly even its limitations . He regards the Ontological argument strictly so called as having been exploded by Kant . Still it has a value for him if taken not as an argument, but rather as the expression of an immediate conviction; viz . The highest must exist .

This is an intuitionalist touch, or a parallel to intuitionalism, and has called forth a gibe from that very confident ratiocinator, J . E . MacTaggart; Lotze's immediate convictions are matter of interest to a biographer but to no one else . The Design argument elicits from Lotze the criticism that some things look purposeful, but others decidedly purpose-less . The only solid See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus he finds in it is the fact that there is a great deal of beauty in this world . Obviously this writer is harder to See also:

• FOCUS (Latin for " hearth " or " fireplace ")

focus than Kant or Hegel . He is not all of one piece . He holds—on grounds of fact and science—to the mechanical orderliness of nature, but claims that the Weltanschauung thus suggested may be reinterpreted in view of those undying human aspirations which MacTaggart dismisses to instant See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution (unless they can See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress themselves in See also:

• SYLLOGISM (Gr. ovAAoytvµos, from en', and Xb-yor, an argument resulting from combination, i.e. of premises)

syllogism) . Thus, for Lotze, free will is possible; the consequences of action proceed regularly a See also:

• PASTE (O. Fr. paste, modern pate, Late Lat. pasta, whence also in Span., Port. and Ital., from Gr. 1r&vrrl or 1raara, barley porridge, or salted pottage, ir&ao'ety, to sprinkle with salt)

paste See also:

• POST

post, and there is no such See also:

• CHAOS

chaos as the critics of Libertarianism have pretended it would involve . Similarly, miracles—absolute new beginnings--are possible on God's side, if they are not mere anomalies but acts promotive of the general meaning or tendency of things, and of the divine See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan of the universe.2 But this appeal to " values " is only half of Lotze's constructive work . For the other half he falls back on ratiocination . All existences must be individuals, with an inner life (cf .

Leibnitz) . Since they interact, they must be elements in the life of one supreme being (cf . Spinoza: the Spinozistic affinities of Leibnitz are not so marked as Lotze's) . God can be personal and doubtless is (though he has no Non-ego to define himself against) through contrast of passing conscious states with the abiding Ego . It is reasonable to hold that the supreme personality is the only fully personal being, while ours is a broken and imperfect personality, hindered by the Non-ego which in other ways See also:

• HELPS, SIR ARTHUR (1813-1875)

helps it . Lotze resolves space into " ideal space "; and finally, in the philosophy of religion, or in view of the thought of God (in his Metaphysics), he denies the objective existence of time . God See also:

• SEES

sees all history neither as future nor as present but as actual . Besides the stream of tendency which flowed from Kant in the direction of idealism, two other streams emerged from him, often but not always blending . There was a new scepticism—at the very least a doctrine of limitation in human knowledge; but in its extremer forms an absolute agnosticism . And there was the positive ethical element in Kant's theism . Ancient scepticism was frankly opposed to religious belief . Later, the emergence of a great body of doctrine attributed to ' Stated and criticized by Kant .

2 Lotze is not to be understood as guaranteeing the actuality of Bible miracles . Such things are philosophically possible—that is all.divine revelation and of a great institution like the Christian church suggested the possibility of enlisting scepticism in the service of dogmatic faith . In a sense (see APOLOGETICS) this was done in the middle ages, and possibly repeated by See also:

• PASCAL, BLAISE (1623-1662)
• PASCAL, JACQUELINE (1625-T661)

Pascal after the See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

Reformation . We now find Kant's intellectual scepticism borrowed by W . Hamilton and H . L . Mansel,3 both of them, as J . S . Mill complained,' " bringing back under the name of belief what they banished as knowledge." The theory found a melodious echo in See also:

• TENNYSON, ALFRED TENNYSON

Tennyson's In Memoriam, a great hymn of God, Freedom and Immortality on a basis of speculative agnosticism . " We have but faith we cannot know, For know-ledge is of things we see; " but the moral element which Mansel despised is dominant in Tennyson . " The heart Stood up and answered, I have felt . " J` there is a reading of the new theories of evolution in nature which revives rather than darkens hope in immortality and faith in God, Tennyson gave an early sketch of that tentative modern theism .

R . Browning has been charged by H . See also:

• JONES
• JONES, ALFRED GILPIN (1824-1906)
• JONES, EBENEZER (182o-186o)
• JONES, ERNEST CHARLES (1819-1869)
• JONES, HENRY (1831-1899)
• JONES, HENRY ARTHUR (1851- )
• JONES, INIGO (1573-1651)
• JONES, JOHN (c. 1800-1882)
• JONES, MICHAEL (d. 1649)
• JONES, OWEN (1741-1814)
• JONES, OWEN (1809-1874)
• JONES, RICHARD (179o-1855)
• JONES, SIR ALFRED LEWIS (1845-1909)
• JONES, SIR WILLIAM (1746-1794)
• JONES, THOMAS RUPERT (1819– )
• JONES, WILLIAM (1726-1800)

Jones with partial agnosticism . But at least we may say that agnosticism is much less clear in Browning than in Tennyson . Browning reasons as far as he can; if reasoning fails him, he gives a leap of faith . Jones, almost as merciless as MacTaggart, calls this See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure by the hard names of agnosticism and dualism . Another who " got the See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed " and " See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew the See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

flower " was Herbert Spencer . He quotes pages from Mansel's See also:

• BAMPTON, JOHN (c. 169o-1751)

Bampton Lectures in favour of his own type of agnosticism, which is to make See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace between religion and science by permanently silencing the former . Religion may " feel," like Tennyson's " man in wrath, " and may expatiate in an undefined See also:

• AWE, LOCH

awe; science alone is to possess the " knowable." This yields a characteristic type of pantheism, in the theory of the Unknowable which—rather paradoxically—is offered us . Alongside of this there are other elements in Spencer's composite system of " Naturalism and Agnosticism " (J . Ward's expression, see his Gifford Lecture) . The element of naturalism stands for science with a leaning towards materialism (" explanation in terms of matter and See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion ") .

The element of agnosticism tends rather towards pantheism, just as Indian pantheism long ago tended towards agnosticism . John See also:

• FISKE, JOHN (1842-1901)
• FISKE, MINNIE MADDERN (1865– )

Fiske, however, an able interpreter of Spencer, reached what he called " See also:

• COSMIC (from Gr. Kovµos, order or universe)

Cosmic Theism . " He rejected all that is anthropomorphic in theism, but gave a positive not negative interpretation to Spencer's scientific generalizations, and See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke away from pantheism—perhaps also from naturalism—when, like Tennyson, he pleaded for human immortality as the See also:

• CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

climax of evolutionary progress . The name agnosticism (q.v.) is T . H . Huxley's . Modern doubt does not say there is no God; it says, We See also:

• DON
• DON (anc. Tanais)

don't know . Popular scepticism—perhaps even See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles See also:

• DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882)
• DARWIN, ERASMUS (1731-1802)

Darwin's; Huxley himself was a student of Hume—understands by agnosticism that science is certain while philosophy and theology are baseless . Leslie Stephen gave this popular agnosticism its finest See also:

• LITERARY

literary expression . Spencer goes much further in rejection of human knowledge: " The man of science more than any other truly knows that in its ultimate essence nothing can be known . "] 5 An interesting manifesto of agnosticism, with a religious conclusion, is A . J .

See also:

• BALFOUR, FRANCIS MAITLAND (1851-1882)
• BALFOUR, ROBERT (known also as BALFOREUS) (1550?-1625?)
• BALFOUR, SIR JAMES (of Pittendreich) (d. 1583 Or 1584)
• BALFOUR, SIR JAMES, BART

Balfour's See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

Foundations of Belief, welcomed in Germany by See also:

• JULIUS

Julius Kaftan (see below) . In " Some Consequences of (naturalistic) Belief," Balfour argues that the results of " naturalism " are unbearable . In " Some Reasons for Belief, " the author institutes a rapid destructive criticism of all possible philosophies . In " Some Causes of Belief," he tries, standing outside the psychological process, to show how beliefs grow up under every See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of influence except that of genuine evidence . His constructive theory comes at the end, and seems to argue thus: Since (r) there is no discoverable reason why we 3 Mansel's theism (or natural theology), and the revelation he believes in, seem both of them pure matters of assertion on his part, without evidence, or even in the See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth of the evidence as he conceives it . Examination of Sir Win . Hamilton's Philosophy, chap. v . 5 First Principles, p . 67 . Further developments from Kant . should reach truth, beauty or goodness, but (2) we do, therefore (3) there must be a God outside the process, overruling and counteracting the natural tendencies of the human mind . It seems as if one See also:

• FOOT

foot rested on dogmatism and one on scepticism .

The fact—assumed without any attempt at justification by argument—that, in spite of the multitude of logical reasons for scepticism, we do know truth and beauty, makes Balfour a theist . And the God he postulates is brought in ex machina like the God of the old Design argument in its roughest popular form . There must be a God, who could compel irrational matter to serve rational ends—so ran the old argument . There must be a God who can miraculously endow the irrational mind of man with truth—so runs the new . Emphasis on moral motives is plain in Kant's theism as in Butler's . If this tendency is to take effect, a certain part of Kant's rational scepticism must be accepted . There is no chance for the moral consciousness to claim a decisive See also:

• VOTE

vote if a metaphysical system like Hegel's demonstrates all realities in every region, and if its See also:

• JANISSARIES (corrupted from Turkish yeni cheri, new troops)

janissaries crush out every See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of See also:

• REBELLION

rebellion against the tyranny of abstract thought . Is it really impossible to claim for man something between om-' niscience and universal nescience ? May we not cherish what A . C . Fraser calls "reasonable faith" ? Granted that, ideally, scientific knowledge ought to be able to demonstrate all truth, is it safe, or humane, for a being who is imperfectly started in the process of knowledge to fling away with scorn those unanalysed promptings and misgivings " Which, be they what they may, Are yet the fountain light of all our day, Are yet a master light of all our seeing .

. . truths which See also:

• WAKE (A.S. wacan, to " wake " or " watch ")
• WAKE, THOMAS (1297-1349)
• WAKE, WILLIAM (1657-1737)

wake To perish never " ? Those who assert the superior See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth and importance of moral judgments speak of " values " (A . Ritschl, after J . F . See also:

• HERBART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1776-1841)

Herbart and H . Lotze) . As worked out by Ritschl, this is specially a basis for Christian belief . With what is specifically Christian we have nothing to do in the present article: but it is worth noticing that the appeal to " values, " aesthetic and still more moral, forms a substitute for that natural theology which Ritschl despised and professed to reject . There are not a few difficulties in his programme . When See also:

• OTTO

Otto Ritschl' interprets values hedonistically—recoiling from Hegel's idealism the whole way to empiricism—he brings again to our minds the doubt whether hedonist ethics can serve as a See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation for any religious belief . Julius Kaftan—Balfour's German editor, and a highly influential theologian, occupying a position of modified Ritschlianism—is also a very thoroughgoing empiricist . On the other hand, W .

Herrmann's appeal to Kant's moral teaching is in close analogy to the more thoughtful forms of intuitionalist ethics . But is the basis for religious belief to be constructed purely within the region of " values " ? Can you contrast " judgments of value " with " judgments of fact " ? Or, if, as the Ritschlians maintain, it is a See also:

• SLANDER

slander invented by their enemy, C . E . See also:

• LUTHARDT, CHRISTOPH ERNST (1823-1902)

Luthardt, to say that they draw this contrast, do you achieve much by calling the principles of moral and religious belief, with A . Ritschl, " independent judgments of value " ? Independent of what ? Surely not of fact ? It is explained that they are in contrast with " See also:

• ACCESSORY

accessory value-judgments . " Perhaps the meaning is that they are of independent importance . But does that carry us far ?

It all seems a very hurried and imperfectly studied philosophical analysis . One might prefer as a theist to hold (I) that we need a philosophical doctrine of the nature of reality—the " Absolute "; given in popular form in the Cosmological argument; (2) that we take the See also:

• RISK

risk of attaching a higher degree of significance and authority to the revelations of the moral consciousness, which, although moulded or educed by society, do not terminate in the authority of society, but point beyond it to God; this position has its popular form in the moral argument; possibly (3) that necessities of thought shut us up to belief in omnipotence or infinity; (4) that divine help is the supreme revelation . But such lines of thought might carry us outside the limits of traditional theism . 1 Son of A . Ritschl . The younger theologian has accepted determinism . If we try to bring the contents of theism under Kant's three traditional arguments, then moral and aesthetic considerations —the " values "—fall under the Design argument or the study of See also:

• TELEOLOGY (Gr. Taos, end)

teleology; albeit there is a great gap between Paley's super-natural watchmaker and any moral argument or appeal to the beautiful . It might be argued that beauty bears witness against materialism, and moral values against pantheism; although such an anomalous type as ethical pantheism has its representatives—J . G . Fichte, Matthew Arnold, perhaps H . See also:

• HOFFDING, HARALD (1843– )

Hoffding . Kant's reliance on the moral argument alone goes with his scepticism .

Giving that argument the highest place seems to involve, as already said, a dash of the same scepticism . —The arguments, as already noted, may be differently combined . (I) Usually they are alternatives or else cumulative . (2) Flint spaces out the proof (and the attributes) among them . (3) Hegel regards them as phases . V . What are the alternative conclusions to theism ? The extremest form of antagonism is pure scepticism or pure agnosticism, the assertion that nothing can be known . Alt See also:

• EMS

ems-Empiricism may lead to this conclusion; or it may tires to lead to materialism . True materialism includes theism. within itself dogmatic See also:

• ATHEISM (from Gr. as, privative, and Oebs, God)

atheism, and is probably the only coherent or reasoned type of atheistic See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion.2 Materialism further brings with it an extreme or " hard " determinism; and, denying the soul's separate existence in any sense, it naturally denies immortality . Once again, empiricism may lead to some qualified and restricted form of agnosticism, religious or See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-religious . If polytheism is to be seriously defended at all, the basis must be empiricist .3 Intuitionalism in its turn may harden out of " natural " dualism into moral dualism; either a literally Manichaean scheme—a good God impeded by an evil personality or principle (Bayle)—or belief in a good God of limited See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers (Mill) .

And idealism in some cases may interpret itself in favour of pantheism rather than of theism . Pantheism does not favour free will or immortality, and may move indefinitely near to materialism . Out of pantheism again pessimism develops . If the principle of the universe is impersonal or unconscious, personal consciousness in finite See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits comes to See also:

• WEAR

wear the appearance of a blunder . Conversely, if God cares for men, despair is impossible . For another systematic grouping, see A . C . Fraser's Gifford Lectures . Wolff's See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list is of some historical importance—atheism, deism (a God with-out care for men) and naturalism (denial of supernatural revelation); See also:

• ANTHROPOMORPHISM (Gr. &vOponros, man, ,uopcb , form)

anthropomorphism (assigning a human body to God); materialism, and idealism (non-existence of matter); paganism (polytheism); See also:

• MANICHAEISM

Manichaeism, Spinozism, Epicureanism . R . Flint has dealt with the following antitheistic theories: atheism, materialism, positivism, See also:

• SECULARISM

secularism, pessimism, pantheism and (in a separate volume) agnosticism . It is hard to be certain that any systematic grouping will anticipate all the suggestions that may occur to a restlessly and recklessly inquiring age .

2 Dr MacTaggart's beliefs once more present themselves as an unexpected modern type (Studies in Hegelian Cosmology, chap. iii.) . 8 Yet cf. once more MacTaggart's society of eternal spirits with no divine head . treatment vary immensely . A . C . Fraser's See also:

• EDINBURGH

Edinburgh lectures (Phil. of Theism) are central in topic and of distinct value . J . Caird (See also:

• GLASGOW

Glasgow: Fundamental Ideas of Christianity, comp. his earlier Introduc. to the Phil. of Relig.) and more unreservedly Ed . Caird (St See also:

• ANDREWS, JAMES PETTIT (c. 1737–1797)
• ANDREWS, THOMAS (1813–1885)

Andrews: The Evolution of Religion; Glasgow: The Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophies) represent speculative treatment on a basis of Hegelianism . H . M . Gwatkin (Edinburgh: The Knowledge of God) pours out his historical knowledge, and W .

James (Edinburgh: Varieties of Relig . Exp.) reveals his many-sided intellectual interests and ready sympathies . W . Wallace (Lectures and Essays, incorporating Glasgow lectures) gives some useful historical references . James Ward's masterly criticism of Herbert Spencer (Naturalism and Agnosticism) has been mentioned above . The student will rarely lose by reading Gifford Lectures; but it will not always be upon theism that he finds himself better informed . In France, Paul Janet (Final Causes, Eng. trans.) and Ch . Secretan (Philosophie de la Liberle) may be named: in Germany, H . See also:

• ULRICI, HERMANN (1806-1884)

Ulrici; while R . See also:

• EUCKEN, RUDOLF CHRISTOPH (1846– )

Eucken represents to a later generation the spirit and tendency of Lotze and Ulrici, in original and powerful, if rather elusive, fashion . H . Hoffding's Phil. of Religion (translated) is one of the most original books under that title, but it cannot be called theistic .

F . C . S . See also:

• SCHILLER, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH VON (1759-18o5)

Schiller, tike W . James, opens up new suggestions in philosophy; the bearing of these upon theistic (or other) beliefs is hard to define . In history compare B . Piinjer's Hist. of the Phil. of Relig . (Eng. trans . ; it includes a good deal of the history of general philosophy) ; A . Caldecott's The Philosophy of Religion in England and America; and A . Caldecott and H . R .

See also:

• MACKINTOSH, SIR JAMES (176 1832)

Mackintosh's Selections from the Literature of Theism (useful texts with useful notes: nothing from Hegel) . (R .