THIRTY  YEARS' See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

WAR (1618–1648), the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general name of a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of See also:

• WARS

wars in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany which began formally with the claim of See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick the elector See also:

• PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace,)

palatine to the See also:

• THRONE

throne of Bohemia and ended with the treaty of See also:

• WESTPHALIA (Ger. Westfalen)
• WESTPHALIA, TREATY OF

Westphalia . It was primarily a Nature religious war and was waged with the bitterness of the characteristic of such wars, but at the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time struggle. See also:

• POLITICAL

political and feudal quarrels were interwoven with the religious question, with the consequence that the armies, considering themselves as their masters' retainers rather than champions of a cause, plundered and burned everywhere, military violence being in no way restrained by expediency . In a war based on the principle cujus regio ejus religio it was vain to expect either the professional or the See also:

• NATIONAL

national type of See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army to display its virtues . Fifty years before the outbreak of the war the See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

Convention of See also:

• PASSAU

Passau had compromised the burning questions of the Re-formation, but had See also:

• LEFT

left other equally important points as to the secularization, of See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church lands and the See also:

• CONSECRATION (Lat. consecrallo, from con and sacrare, " to make sacred ")

consecration of See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant bishops to the future . Each such See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case, then, camebefore the normal See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine—a See also:

• DIET

Diet so constituted that even though at least See also:

• HALF

half of the See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular princes and nine-tenths of their subjects were Protestants, the voting See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority was See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic in beliefs and in vested interests . Moreover, the See also:

• JESUITS

Jesuits had rallied and disciplined the forces of Catholicism, while Protestantism, however See also:

• FIRM

firm its hold on the peoples, had at the courts of princes dissipated itself in doctrinal wrangles . Thus, as it was the princes and the See also:

• FREE

free cities, and by no means the See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people, that settled religious questions, the strongest See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side was that which represented conservatism, See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace and Catholicism . Realizing this from the preliminary mutterings of the See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

storm, the Protestant princes formed a See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union, which was promptly answered by the Catholic See also:

• LEAGUE

League . This See also:

• GROUP

group was headed by the See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise and able See also:

• MAXIMILIAN
• MAXIMILIAN (1832—1867)

Maximilian of See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria and sup-ported by his army, which he placed under a soldier of See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long experience and conspicuous ability, See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

Count See also:

• TILLY, JOHANN TZERCLAES, COUNT OF (1559-1632)

Tilly . The war arose in Bohemia, where the magnates, roused by the systematic evasion of the guarantees to Protestants, refused to elect the See also:

• ARCHDUKE (Lat. archidux, Ger. Erzherzog)

archduke See also:

• FERDINAND
• FERDINAND (1577-1650)
• FERDINAND (COLOGNE)
• FERDINAND (Span. Fernando or Hernando; Ital. Ferdinando or Ferrante; in O. H. Ger. Herinand, i.e. " brave in the host," from O. H. G. Heri, "army," A. S. here, Mod. Ger. Heer, and the Goth. nan]jan, " to dare ")
• FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN KARL LEOPOLD MARIA

Ferdinand to the vacant throne, Bohemian offering it instead to Frederick, the elector palatine. move- But the aggrandizement of this elector's See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power was See also:

• MEAT

meat. entirely unacceptable to most of the Protestant princes—to See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George of See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony above all . They declared themselves neutral, and Frederick found himself an isolated See also:

• REBEL, JOHANN PETER (176o-1826)

rebel against the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor Ferdinand, and little more than the nominal See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of an incoherent See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility in his new See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom . Even thus See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early the struggle showed itself in the See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double aspect of a religious and a political war .

Just as the Protestants and their nominee found themselves looked upon askance by the other Protestants, so the emperor himself was unable to See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call upon Maximilian's Army of the League without promising to aggrandize Bavaria . Indeed the emperor was at first—before Frederick intervened—almost a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere archduke of See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria waging a private war against his neighbours . Only the in-coherence of his enemies saved him . They ordered taxes and levies of soldiers, but the taxes were not collected, and the soldiers, unpaid and unfed, either dispersed to their homes or plundered the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country-side . The only coherent force was the See also:

• MERCENARY (Lat. mercenarius, from merces, reward, gain)

mercenary See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

corps of See also:

• ERNST, HEINRICH WILHELM (1814–1865)

Ernst von See also:

• MANSFELD

Mansfeld, which, thrown out of employment by the termination of a war in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, had entered the service of the Union . Nevertheless, the Bohemians were conspicuously successful at the outset . Under Count Thurn they won several engagements, and Ferdinand's army under Carl See also:

• BONAVENTURA, SAINT (JOHN OF FIDANZA)

Bonaventura de Longueval, Count Buquoi (1571–1621), was driven back . Thurn appeared before See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna itself . See also:

• MORAVIA (Ger., Ma/wen; Czech, Morava)

Moravia and See also:

• SILESIA

Silesia supported the Bohemians, and the See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian nobles attempted, in a stormy See also:

• CONFERENCE

conference, to wrest from Ferdinand not only religious See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty but also political rights that would have made Austria and Bohemia a loose See also:

• CONFEDERATION (Fr. confederation, Lat. confoederatio, from foedus, a league, foederare, to form a league)

confederation of powerful nobles . Ferdinand firmly refused, though the deputation threatened him to his See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face, and the See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide ebbed as rapidly as it had flowed . One or two small military failures, and the enormous political blunder of bringing in the elector palatine, sealed the See also:

• FATE

fate of the Bohemian See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement, for no sooner had Frederick accepted the See also:

• CROWN

crown than Maximilian let loose the Army of the League . See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish aid arrived .

See also:

• SPINOLA, AMBROSE, MARQUIS DE LOS BALBASES (1569-1630)
• SPINOLA, CRISTOVAL ROJAS DE (d. 1695)

Spinola with 20,000 men from the See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

Low Countries and Franche See also:

• COMTE, AUGUSTE [ISIDORE AUGUSTE MARIE FRANCOIS XAVIER] (1798-1857)

Comte invaded the See also:

• PALATINATE (Ger. Pfalz)

Palatinate, and Tilly, with no fears for the safety of Bavaria, was able to combine with Buquoi against Defeat of the Bohemians, whose resistance was crushed at the Frederick. See also:

• BATTLE

battle of the Weisser See also:

• BERG (Ducatus Montensis)

Berg near See also:

• PRAGUE (Ger. Prag; Bohemian Praha)

Prague (8/18 See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1620) . With this the Bohemian war ended . Some of the nobles were executed, and Frederick, the " See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

Winter See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King," was put to the See also:

• BAN

ban of the See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire . The menace of Spinola's invasion See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke up the feeble Protestant Union . But the emperor's revenge alarmed the Union princes . They too had, more or less latent, the tendency to separatism and they were Protestants, and neither in See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion nor in politics could they suffer an all-powerful Catholic emperor . Moreover, the alternative to a powerful emperor was a. powerful Bavaria, and this they liked almost as little . The "Union" and the "League" formed . There still remained for the armies of Tilly and Buquoi the reduction of the smaller garrisons in Bohemia, and these when finally expelled rallied under Mansfeld, who was joined by the disbanded soldiery of the Protestant Union's See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short-lived army . Then there began the See also:

• WOLF
• WOLF (Canis lupus)
• WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1759-1824)
• WOLF, HUGO (1860-1903)
• WOLF, JOSEPH (1820-1899)

wolf-See also:

• STRATEGY

strategy that was the distinguishing See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark of the Thirty Years' War . An army even of ruffians could be controlled, as Tilly controlled that of the League, if it were Predatory co paid . But fe, servant of a See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

shadow uld not pay .

MansThe eforee" he must of See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity See also:

• PLUNDER

plunder armies. where he was . His movements would be governed neither by political nor by military considerations . As, soon as his men had eaten up one See also:

• PART

part of the country they must go on to another, if they were not to See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die of See also:

• STARVATION

starvation . They obeyed a See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of their own, quite See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent of the wishes or needs of the See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign whose interests they were supposed to serve." These movements were for preference made upon hostile territory, and Mansfeld was so far successful in them that the situation in 1621 became distinctly unfavourable to the emperor . He had had to recall Buquoi's army to See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary to fight against See also:

• GABRIEL (Heb. SKns, man of God)

Gabriel See also:

• BETHLEN, GABRIEL (GABOR) (1580-1629)

Bethlen, the See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince of Transylvania, and in an unsuccessful battle at Neuhausel (See also:

• JULY

July to) Buquoi was killed . Tilly and the League Army fought warily and did not See also:

• RISK

risk a decision . Thus even the proffered See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• MEDIATION (Lat. medius, middle)

mediation in the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German war might have been accepted but for the fact that in the See also:

• LOWER

Lower Palatinate a corps of English See also:

• VOLUNTEERS

volunteers, raised by See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• HORACE [QuINTus HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.)

Horace See also:

• VERE
• VERE, SIR FRANCIS (1560-1609)

Vere for the service of the English princess See also:

• ELIZABETH
• ELIZABETH (1533-1603)
• ELIZABETH (1596-1662)
• ELIZABETH (1635–1650)
• ELIZABETH [ AMELIE EUGENIE ] (1837—1898)
• ELIZABETH [1lisabeth Philippine Marie Helene of France] (1764—1794)
• ELIZABETH [PAULINE ELIZABETH OTTILIE LOUISE] (1843– )
• ELIZABETH [PETROVNA] (1709-1762), EMPRESS
• ELIZABETH, SAINT (1207-1231)

Elizabeth, the See also:

• FAIR

fair See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

queen of Bohemia, found itself compelled, for want of pay and rations, to live, as Mansfeld lived, on the country of the nearest probable enemy—in their case the See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of See also:

• SPIRE

Spire . This brought about a fresh intervention of Spinola's army, which had begun to return to the Low Countries to See also:

• PROSE

prose-cute the interminable Dutch war . Moreover Mansfeld, having so thoroughly eaten up the Palatinate that the magistrates of Frederick's own towns begged Tilly to expel his general, decamped into See also:

• ALSACE (Ger. Elsass)

Alsace, where he seized See also:

• HAGENAU

Hagenau and wintered in safety . The winter of 1621–22 passed in a series of negotiations which failed because too many interests, inside and outside Germany, were See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound up with Protestantism to allow the Catholics to speak as conquerors, and because the cause of Protestantism was too much involved with the cause of the elector palatine to be taken in See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand with See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy by the Protestant princes . But Frederick and Mansfeld found two See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies . One was See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian of See also:

• BRUNSWICK
• BRUNSWICK (Ger. Braunschweig)
• BRUNSWICK, KARL WILHELM FERDINAND, DUKE OF (1735-18o6)

Brunswick, the gallant See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young See also:

• KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873)
• KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845– )
• KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843–1908)

knight-errant, titular bishop of See also:

• HALBERSTADT

Halberstadt, queen Elizabeth's See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion, and withal, though he called himself Fresh Goltes See also:

• FREUND, WILHELM (1806—1894)

Freund, der Pfajjen Feind, a plunderer of peasants combat- as well as of priests .

The other was the See also:

• MARGRAVE (Ger. Markgraf)

margrave George See also:

• ARSES
• ARSES (338-336)

arses in Frederick of See also:

• BADEN
• BADEN, GRAND DUCHY OF

Baden-See also:

• DURLACH

Durlach, reputed to be of all German the way princes the most skilful sequestrator of ecclesiastical lands . In See also:

• APRIL

April 1622, while Vere garrisoned the central fortresses of the Palatinate, Mansfeld, Christian and George Frederick took the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field against Tilly, who at once demanded assistance from Spinola . The latter, though engaged with the Dutch, sent a corps under his subordinate See also:

• CORDOVA (Span. C6rdoba)
• CORDOVA (Span. Cordoba; Lat. Corduba)

Cordova . Before this arrived Mansfeld and the margrave of Baden had defeated Tilly at Wiesloch, See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of See also:

• HEIDELBERG

Heidelberg (17/27 April 1622) . Nevertheless Tilly's army was not as easily dissolved as one of theirs, and soon the allies had to See also:

• SEPARATE

separate to find See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food . Then Cordova came up, and Tilly and the Spaniards combined defeated George Frederick at Wimpfen on the See also:

• NECKAR

Neckar (26 April/6 May) . Following up this success, Cordova chased Mansfeld back into Alsace, while Tilly went See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north to oppose Christian of Brunswick on the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

Main . - On See also:

• JUNE

June 10/20 the latter's army was almost destroyed by the League Army at See also:

• HOCHST

Hochst . Mansfeld, and with him Frederick, had already set out from Alsace to join Christian, but when that See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader arrived with only a handful of beaten men, the war was practically at an end . Frederick took Mansfeld and Christian back to Alsace, and after dismissing their troops from his employment, retired to See also:

• SEDAN

Sedan . Henceforth he was a picturesque but powerless See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile, and his lands and his electoral dignity, forfeited by the ban, went to the prudent Maximilian, who thus became elector of Bavaria . Finally Tilly conquered the Palatinate fortresses, now guarded only by the English volunteers .

The next See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act in the See also:

• DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. Snail, act or do)

drama, however, had already begun with the adventures of the outlaw army of Mansfeld and Christian . Mansfeld After Hochst, had it not been for them, the war might and chris• have ended in See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

compromise . See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James I. of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England was than of busy as always with mediation schemes . See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, Bruns- being then in See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close connexion with him, was working See also:

• WICK

wick . to prevent the See also:

• TRANSFER (from Lat. transferre, to bear across, carry over)

transfer of the electorate to Maximilian, and the Protestant princes of North Germany being neutral, a See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic struggle over the fate of the Palatinate, with Tilly's and Cordova's armies opposed in See also:

• EQUILIBRIUM (from the Lat. aequus, equal, and libra, a balance)

equilibrium, might have ended in a new convention of Passau that would have regulated the See also:

• PRESENT

present troubles and left the future to See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle its own problems . The struggle would only have been deferred, it is true, but meanwhile the North German Protestants, now helpless in an unarmed See also:

• NEUTRALITY

neutrality, would have853 taken the hint from Maximilian and organized themselves and their army . As it was, they remained powerless and inactive, while Tilly's army, instead of being disbanded, was kept in hand to See also:

• DEAL

deal with the adventurers . These, after eating up Alsace, moved on to See also:

• LORRAINE

Lorraine, whereupon the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French government " warned them off." But ere long they found a new employment . The Dutch were losing ground before Spinola, who was besieging See also:

• BERGEN

Bergen-op-Zoom, and the States-General invited Mansfeld to relieve it . Time was short and no detour by the Lower See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine possible, and the adventurers therefore moved straight across See also:

• LUXEMBURG
• LUXEMBURG, FRANCOIS HENRI DE MONTMORENCYBOUTEVILLE, DUKE

Luxemburg and the Spanish See also:

• NETHERLANDS

Netherlands to the See also:

• RESCUE (in Middle Eng. rescous, from O. Fr. recousse, Low Lat. rescussa, from reexcussa,reexcutere, to shake off again, re, again, ex, off, quatere, to shake)

rescue . Cordova barred the route at See also:

• FLEURUS

Fleurus near the Sambre, but the desperate invaders, held together by the sheer Mansfeld force of See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of their leaders, thrust him out of See also:

• MES

mes their way (19/29 See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1622) and relieved Bergen-op- to Farchrhes-Zoom . But ere long, finding Dutch discipline intolerable, See also:

• LAND

land .

they marched off to the See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich country of See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East See also:

• FRIESLAND, or VRIESLAND

Friesland . Their presence raised fresh anxieties for the neutral princes of North Germany . In 1623 Mansfeld issued from his Frisian strong-hold, and the See also:

• THREAT

threat of a visitation from his army induced the princes of the Lower Saxon Circle to join him . Christian was himself a member of the Circle, and although he resigned his bishopric, he was taken, with many of his men, into the service of his See also:

• BROTHER

brother, the See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of Brunswick-See also:

• WOLFENBUTTEL

Wolfenbuttel; around the mercenary See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus gathered many thousands of volunteers, and the towns and the nobles' castles alike were alarmed at the progress of the Catholics, who were reclaiming Protestant bishoprics . But this movement was nipped in the bud by the misconduct of the mercenaries . The authorities of the Circle ordered Christian to depart . He returned to See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland, therefore, but Tilly started in pursuit and caught him at Stadtlohn, where on 28 July/6 August 1623 his army was almost destroyed . Thereupon the Lower Saxon Circle, which, like the Bohemians, had ordered collectively taxes and levies of troops that the members individually furnished either not at all or unwillingly, disbanded their army to prevent See also:

• BRIGANDAGE

brigandage . Mansfeld, too, having eaten up East Friesland, returned to Holland in 1624 . The only material See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor was now Tilly's ever-victorious Army of the League, but for the present it was suspended inactive in the midst of a spider's See also:

• WEB (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Du. webbe, Dan. vaev, Ger. Gewebe, all from the Teutonic wabh—to weave)

web of See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• FOREIGN

Foreign and German See also:

• DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic)

diplomacy . Spain and England had inter- quarrelled . The latter became the ally of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, "nu". over whose policy See also:

• RICHELIEU, ARMAND EMMANUEL SOPHIE SEPTEMANIE DU PLESSIS
• RICHELIEU, ARMAND JEAN DU PLESSIS
• RICHELIEU, LOUIS FRANCOIS ARMAND DU PLESSIS

Richelieu now ruled, and the See also:

• UNITED

United Provinces and (later) See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark joined them .

Thus the war was extended beyond the See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of the Empire, and the way opened for ceaseless foreign interventions . From the battle of Stadtlohn to the pitiful end twenty years later, the decision of German quarrels See also:

• LAY

lay in the hands of foreign See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers, and for two centuries after the treaty of Westphalia the evil tradition was faithfully followed . France was concerned chiefly with Spain, whose military possessions all along her frontier suggested that a new See also:

• AUSTRASIA

Austrasia, more powerful than See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles the Bold's, might arise . To Germany only subsidies were sent, but in Italy the Valtelline, as the connecting See also:

• LINK

link between Spanish possessions and Germany, was mastered by a French expedition . James, in See also:

• CONCERT (through the French from Lat. con-, with, and certare, to strive)

concert with France, re-equipped Mansfeld and allowed him to raise an army in England, but Richelieu was unwilling to allow Mansfeld's men to See also:

• TRAVERSE

traverse France, and they ultimately went to the Low Countries, where, being raw pressed-men for the most part, and having neither pay (James having been afraid to summon See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament) nor experience in plundering, they perished in the winter of 1625 . At the same time a Huguenot rising paralysed Richelieu's foreign policy . Holland after the collapse of Mansfeld's expedition was anxious for her own safety owing to the steady advance of Spinola . The only member of the See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance who intervened in Germany itself was fnterven-Christian IV. of Denmark, who as duke of See also:

• HOLSTEIN
• HOLSTEIN, FRIEDRICH VON (1837–1909)

Holstein See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

lion of was a member of the Lower Saxon Circle, as king of Christian Denmark was anxious to extend his See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence over of Den- the North See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea ports, and as Protestant dreaded the m 8nc~, rising power of the Catholics . Gustavus See also:

• ADOLPHUS, JOHN LEYCESTER (1795-1862)

Adolphus of See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden, judging better than any of the difficulties of affronting the Empire and Spain, contented himself for the present with carrying on a war with See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

Poland . Christian IV. raised an army in his own lands and in the Lower Saxon Circle in the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring of 1625 . Tilly at once advanced to meet him . But he had only the Army of the League, Ferdinand's troops being occupied with repelling a new inroad of Gabriel Bethlen .

Then, like a See also:

• DEUS
• DEUS, JOAO DE (1830-1896)

deus ex machina, See also:

• WALLENSTEIN (properly WALDSTEIN), ALBRECHT WENZEL EUSEBIUS VON

Wallenstein, duke of See also:

• FRIEDLAND

Friedland, came forward and offered to raise and maintain an army in the emperor's service . It was an army like Mansfeld's in that it lived on the country, but its exactions were systematic and the Wauen- products economically used, so that it was possible to See also:

• STEIN, CHARLOTTE VON (1742-1827)
• STEIN, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH KARL, BARON VOM

stein feed 50,000 men where Mansfeld and his like had barely raises an subsisted 20,000 . This method, the high See also:

• WAGES (the plural of " wage," from Late Lat. wadium, a pledge, O. Fr. wagier, gagier)

wages which army he paid, and his own princely habits and commanding See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality gave it a cohesion that neither a free See also:

• COMPANY

company nor an army of mere Lower Saxon contingents could ever See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope to attain . In 1625, in spite of Tilly's appeals, Wallenstein did nothing but See also:

• LEVY (Fr. levee, from lever, Lat. levare, to lift, raise)
• LEVY, AMY (1861–1889)
• LEVY, AUGUSTE MICHEL (1844– )

levy contributions about See also:

• MAGDEBURG

Magdeburg and Halberstadt, keeping his new army well away from the risks of battle until he could See also:

• TRUST

trust it to conquer . It was fortunate for Ferdinand that he did so . Christian IV., who had been joined by Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick, had in 1626, 6o,000 men . Wallenstein and Tilly together had only a very slight numerical superiority, and behind them was nothing . Even the hereditary provinces of Austria were threatening revolt owing to their having to maintain Maxiniilian's troops (the new elector thus recouping his expenses in the Palatinate war) and Gabriel Bethlen was again in the field . But on the other side the English subsidies failed, and the Protestant armies soon began to suffer in consequence . Tilly opposed Christian IV., Wallenstein Mansfeld . The latter, having stood still about See also:

• LUBECK

Lubeck and in the outskirts of See also:

• BRANDENBURG

Brandenburg till the food was exhausted, advanced upon Wallenstein, attacked him in an entrenched position at the See also:

• BRIDGE

Bridge of See also:

• DESSAU

Dessau and was thoroughly defeated (15/25 April 1626) . He then wandered across Germany into Silesia and joined Defeat Bethlen .

Wallenstein followed up, and by taking up stroa positi, CoMelld Mans and en to and See also:

• DEATH

death See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose betweensattackingehim andfeld starving . BSo,lwith- ofMans- out a battle, he brought about a truce, whereby Bethlen teld. was disarmed and Mansfeld was required to leave Hungary . Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick died soon afterwards, the one in Hungary, the other in Westphalia . King Christian, left alone and unable without English subsidies to carry on the war methodically, took the offensive, as Mansfeld had done, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to live on the Thuringian countryside . But Tilly, with whom Wallenstein had left a part of his army, moved as quickly as the king, brought him to See also:

• ACTION

action at Lutter-am-Barenberge in Brunswick and totally defeated him (17/27 August) . With this, armed opposition to Tilly and Wallenstein in the field practically ceased until 1630 . But there was enough danger to prevent the disbandment of their armies, which continued to live on the country . In the intervening years the See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance of forces, political and military, was materially altered . France opposed Spain and the emperor in Italy with such See also:

• LULL (or LvLLY), RAIMON, or RAYMOND (c. 1235-1315)

Lull vigour as Huguenot outbreaks. permitted, England in the quarrelled with France, but yet. like France sent struggle. subsidies to the North German Protestants . Gustavus held his hand, while Christian slowly gave up fortress after fortress to Tilly . Wallenstein, returning from the See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign against Gabriel Bethlen, subdued Silesia, where a small part of Mansfeld's army had been left in 1626, and afterwardss drove Christian's army through See also:

• JUTLAND (Danish Jylland)

Jutland (1627) . But Wallenstein, with his dreams of a united Germany free in See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

conscience and absolutely obedient to the emperor, drifted further and further away from the League .

Ferdinand thought that he could fulfil the secular portion of Wallenstein's policy while giving See also:

• SATISFACTION (Lat. salisfacerc, to satisfy)

satisfaction to the bishops . The princes and bishops of the League continued to oppose any aggrandizement of the emperor's power at their expense and to insist upon the resumption of church lands . In this equilibrium the North German Protestant cities were strong enough to refuse to admit Wallenstein's garrisons . In 1628 Wallenstein, who had received the duchy of See also:

• MECKLENBURG

Mecklenburg on its rightful See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord being put to the ban for his See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in the Danish war, began to occupy his new towns, and also to spread along the coasts, for his united Germany could never be more than a See also:

• DREAM (from a root dreug, connected with Germ. trugen, to deceive)

dream until' the possibility of Danish and See also:

• SWEDISH

Swedish invasions was removed . But the Hanse towns rejected his overtures, and See also:

• STRALSUND

Stralsund, second-See also:

• RATE

rate seaport though it was, absolutely refused to admit a See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison of. his See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege of See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild soldiery . The result was the famous siege steal- of Stralsund (See also:

• FEBRUARY

February to August 1628), in which, See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand. with some slight help from oversea, the citizens compelled the hitherto unconquered Wallenstein army to. retire . The siege was, as the result proved, a turning-point in German See also:

• HISTORY

history . The emperor's policy of restoring order had practiclalbr universal support . But the See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument of the restoration was a plundering army . Even this might have been See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne had Wallenstein been able to give them, as he wished, not only peace but religious freedom . But when Christian signed the peace of Lubeck, and the See also:

• EDICT (Lat. edictum, from e, out, and dicere, to say, speak)

Edict of Restitution (1629) gave back one See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred and fifty See also:

• NORTHERN

northern ecclesiastical See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations to the Catholics, men were convinced that one ruler Gustavus meant one religion . Rather than endure this the Adolphus North Germans had called in Gustavus Adolphus, of and, just as Gustavus landed, the resentment of the swede' princes of the League against Wallenstein's policy and Wallenstein's soldiers came to a head, and the emperor was forced to dismiss him .

His soldiers were taken over by Tilly, and for the moment he disappeared from the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene . A thoroughly trained army, recruited from See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good yeomen and good soldiers of See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune, paid good wages, and led by a See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

captain, was a novelty in war that more than compensated for Tilly's numerical superiority . Gustavus, however, after landing at Peenemiinde in June, spent the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the See also:

• YEAR

year in establishing himself firmly in Mecklenburg and See also:

• POMERANIA (German, Pommern)

Pomerania, partly for military reasons, partly in view of a future Swedish See also:

• HEGEMONY (Gr. i7ye,uovia, leadership, from it-yo-Oat, to lead, the leadership especially of one particular state in a group of federated or loosely united states. The term was first applied in Greek history to the position claimed by different individual

hegemony of the Baltic, and most of all in order to secure the active support of the more important Protestant princes, so as to appear as an See also:

• AUXILIARY (from Lat. auxilium, help)

auxiliary rather than a See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal in the German conflict . First the old duke Bogislav of Pomerania, then George See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William of Brandenburg joined him, very unwillingly . He was soon afterwards allied with France, by the treaty of Barwalde (See also:

• JANUARY

January 1631) . John George of Saxony, still attempting to stifle the war by his policy of neutrality, sent a last See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to Vienna, praying for the revocation of the Edict of Restitution . Meanwhile Tilly had marched into north-eastern Germany . On the 19/29 See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 1631, the old general of the League destroyed a Swedish garrison at New Brandenburg, and although Gustavus concentrated upon him with a swiftness that surprised the old-fashioned soldiers, Tilly wasted no time in manoeuvres but turned back to the See also:

• ELBE (the Albis of the Romans and the Labe of the Czechs)

Elbe, where his See also:

• LIEUTENANT

lieutenant See also:

• PAPPENHEIM, GOTTFRIED HEINRICH, COUNT OF (1594—1632)

Pappenheim was besieging Magdeburg . This See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city had twice defied Wallenstein's attempts to introduce a garrison, and it was now in arms against the League . But John George, their prince, had not yet decided to join Gustavus . The latter, as yet without active allies, thought it impossible to go forward alone, and could only hope that his sudden and brilliant storm (3/13 April) of Frankfurt-on-See also:

• ODER (Lat. Viadua; Slavonic, Vjodr)

Oder 1 would bring back Tilly from the Elbe . But the hope was vain .

Tilly and See also:

• SACK

sack of Pappenheim pressed the siege of Magdeburg, and Maade- although the citizens, directed by Swedish See also:

• OFFICERS

officers, b'g• fought desperately the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place was stormed, sacked and burnt on the See also:

• NIGHT

night of the loth of May 1631, amidst horrors that neither of the imperialist generals was able to check, or even to mitigate . The Catholics rejoiced as though for another St See also:

• BARTHOLOMEW, JOHN (1831-1893)
• BARTHOLOMEW, SAINT

Bartholomew's See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, the Protestants were. paralysed, and even Gustavus, accused on all hands of having allowed the Magdeburgers to perish without giving them a helping hand, sorrow-fully withdrew into Pomerania . But Tilly, in spite of Pappenheim's remonstrances, turned westward against See also:

• HESSE
• HESSE (Lat. Hessia, Ger. Hessen)

Hesse-See also:

• CASSEL
• CASSEL, or KASSEL

Cassel and other See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor principalities whose rulers had declared for Gustavus . The king of Sweden, thereupon, clearing away the remaining League garrisons, on the Oder, advanced to Werben (at the junction of the Elbe and the See also:

• HAVEL

Havel), where the army entrenched itself, and, in spite of sickness and See also:

• FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

famine, stoically awaited the attack . The desired result was achieved . At the end of July Tilly, returning from the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west before he had accomplished its reduction, made his See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance and was twice re= pulsed (13/23 and 18/28 July), losing 6000 men out of 22,000 . Moreover, Ferdinand having in his moment of See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph `flatly rejected John George's appeal against the Edict, Saxony took up arms . Thereupon Tilly, ' turning away from Gustavus's entrenchments, invaded Saxony, being reinforced en route by 20,000 Men from Italy (the war there being left to the Spaniards) . The elector at once made an alliance with the Swedes . fn which he exacted See also:

• LIFE

life for life and plunder for plunder in return fnr'the slaughter at New Brandenburg . Then Gustavus advanced ii! See also:

• EARNEST (probably a corruption of the obsolete arles or erles, adapted from Lat. equivalent arrha, due to a confusion with the adjective " earnest," serious, O. Eng. eornust, cognate with Ger. ernst)

earnest . Tilly had taken no See also:

• MEASURES

measures to hold him off while the invasion of Saxony was in Battle of progress, and he crossed the Elbe at See also:

• WITTENBERG

Wittenberg .

See also:

• BEE (Sanskrit blza, AS. ben, Lat. apis)

Bee/ten- 16,000 See also:

• SAXONS

Saxons joined the 26,000 Swedes at Duben, fem. and some of the western Germans had already come in . Tilly had just captured See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, and outside that place, carried away by Pappenheim's See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm, he gave battle on the 7/17 See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September to the now See also:

• <