See also:

• TIBET, or THIBET

TIBET, or THIBET  , a See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country of central See also:

• ASIA

Asia . It is the highest country in the See also:

• WORLD

world, comprising table-lands averaging over 16,5oo ft. above the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, the valleys being at 12,000 to 17,400 ft., the peaks at 20,000 to 24,600 ft., and the passes at 16,000 to 19,000 ft . It is bounded on the N. by See also:

• TURKESTAN
• TURKESTAN, or HAZRET

Turkestan, on the E. by See also:

• CHINA

China, on the W. by See also:

• KASHMIR, or CASHMERE

Kashmir and Ladak, and on the S. by See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India, See also:

• NEPAL, NEPAUL

Nepal and See also:

• BHUTAN

Bhutan . It has an See also:

• AREA

area of over 1,000,000 sq. m., and an estimated See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of about 3,000,000, being very sparsely inhabited . Origin of Name.-The Tibetans See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call their country Bod, which See also:

• SOUTHERN

SOUTHERN See also:

• TIBET, or THIBET

TIBET (For the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• PART

part, see CHINA) See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

Miles ..lo :oo [$o A° See also:

• LONGITUDE (from Lat. longitudo, " length ")

Longitude See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East 85 of See also:

• GREENWICH

Greenwich n1.1ring 1'1 word in colloquial See also:

• PRONUNCIATION (Lat. pronuntiatio, from pronuntiare, proclaim, announce, pronounce)

pronunciation is aspirated into Bhod or Bhot, and in the See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• LHASA (LIIASSA, LASSA, " God's ground ")

Lhasa See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect is curtailed into Bho . Hence the country is known to See also:

• INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN

Indians as Bhot, and the inhabitants as Bhot-ias . This territory came to be known to Europeans as " Tibet " evidently because the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau with its uplands bordering the frontiers of China, See also:

• MONGOLIA

Mongolia and Kashmir, through which travellers communicated with this country, is called by the natives T o-bhot (written stod-bod) or " High Bod " or " Tibet," which designation in the loose See also:

• ORTHOGRAPHY (from Gr. Opeoc, correct, right or straight, and yp&cbecv, to write)

orthography of travellers assumed a variety of forms . Thus in See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

annals are found T'u-See also:

• BAT

bat (5th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, A.D.), Tu-po-te, Tie-bu-te, T'u-bo-te (loth and See also:

• LATH (0. Eng. laett, Mid. Eng. lappe, a form possibly due to the Welsh llath; the word appears in many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch lat, Ger. Latte, and has passed into Romanic, cf. Ital. latta, Fr. latte)

lath centuries) and at the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day T'u-See also:

• FAN (Lat. vannus; Fr. eventail)

fan (fan, as Bushell shows, being the same Chinese See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character which had formerly the See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound of po); in Mongolian, Tubet, Tobot; in Arabic, Tubbet; Istakhri (c . 590), Tobbat; See also:

• RABBI

Rabbi See also:

• BENJAMIN
• BENJAMIN, JUDAHPHILIP (1811-1884)

Benjamin (1165), Thibet; J. de Plano See also:

• CARPINI, JOANNES DE PLANO

Carpini (1247), Thabet; See also:

• RUBRUQUIS (or RUBROUCK), WILLIAM OF

Rubruquis (1253), Marco See also:

• POLO (Tibetan pulu, ball)
• POLO, GASPAR GIL (?153o-1591)
• POLO, MARCO (c. 1254-1324)

Polo (1298), Tebet; See also:

• IBN

Ibn Batuta (134o), Thabat; Ibn Haukal (976), Al See also:

• BIRUNI

Biruni (1020), See also:

• ODORIC (c. 1286-1331)

Odoric of See also:

• PORDENONE
• PORDENONE, IL (1483-1539)

Pordenone (c . 1328), See also:

• ORAZIO (c. 1565—1646)

Orazio della Penna (1730), Tibet, which is the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form now generally adopted . The inhabitants of Tibet call themselves Bod-pa (pronounced usually Bho-pa), or " See also:

• PEOPLE

people of Bod." Other Tibetan epithets for the country sometimes used by flowery native writers are " The Icy See also:

• LAND

Land " (Gangs-c'an) and the " Country of the Red Faces " (Gdong-See also:

• MAR, EARLDOM OF
• MAR, JOHN ERSKINE, 1ST OR 6TH EARL OF (d. 1572)
• MAR, JOHN ERSKINE, 2ND OR 7TH EARL
• MAR, JOHN ERSKINE, 6TH OR 11TH EARL OF (1675-1732)

mar-gyi yul) . The Chinese name for central Tibet is Wei-Ts'ang, which is a transcription of the Tibetan designation of the two; provinces tJ and Tsang (spelt dbus-gtsang) that constitute central Tibet .

Among the See also:

• MONGOLS

Mongols, Tibetans are called Tangutu and the country Barontala or the " right See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side," in contradistinction to Dzontala or " See also:

• LEFT

left side," which was their own name for Mongolia itself . See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

Geography.—Physically Tibet may be divided into two parts, the See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake region in the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west and See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-west, and the See also:

• RIVER

river region, which spreads out on three sides of the former on the east, See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south, and west . The lake region extends from the Pangong t'so (t'so = lake) in Ladak, near the source of the See also:

• INDUS

Indus, to the See also:

• SOURCES

sources of the See also:

• SALWEEN

Salween, the See also:

• MEKONG, or ME NAM KONG (pronounced Kawng)

Mekong and the Yangtse . This region is called the Chang-t'ang (Byang tang) or " Northern Plateau ' by the people of Tibet . It is some 700 m. broad, and covers an area about equal to that of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France . From its great distance from the ocean it is extremely arid, and possesses no river outlet . The See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain ranges are spread out, rounded, disconnected, separated by See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat valleys relatively of little See also:

• DEPTH

depth . The country is dotted over with large and small lakes, generally See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt or alkaline, and intersected by streams, and the See also:

• SOIL

soil is boggy and covered with tussocks of grass, thus resembling the Siberian See also:

• TUNDRA (a Russian word, signifying a marshy plain)

tundra and the See also:

• PAMIRS

Pamirs . Its See also:

• AVERAGE

average See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude is over 16,000 ft., the northern portion of it being the highest . Salt and fresh-See also:

• WATER

water lakes are intermingled . The lakes are generally without outlet, or have only a small effluent . The deposits consist of soda, potash, See also:

• BORAX (sodium pyroborate or sodium biborate)

borax and See also:

• COMMON

common salt .

This last is frequently found piled high and split into blocks apparently of artificial formation, but probably the result of the See also:

• ACTION

action of See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind and intense See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold . The loftiest lake so far as observed is Hospa t'so, near the Lingshi See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain on the Kashmir frontier; its altitude is given as 17,930 ft . The lake region is noted for a vast number of hot springs, which are widely distributed between the Himalayas and 34° N., but are most numerous to the west of Tengri Nor (north-west of Lhasa) . So intense is the cold in Tibet that these springs are sometimes represented by columns of See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice, the nearly boiling water having frozen in the See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of ejection . The southern portion, from Lake Pangong to Tengri Nor, is inhabited by See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral tribes of Tibetans, and possesses a few hamlets, such as Ombo, See also:

• RUDOK

Rudok and Senja jong . The river region comprises the upper courses of the See also:

• BRAHMAPUTRA

Brahmaputra (See also:

• YARN

Yarn Tsangpo), the Salween ( ? Gyama nyul chu), the Yangtsze (Ore chu), the Mekong (Nya-See also:

• LUNG

lung chu), and the Yellow River (Ma chu) . Amidst the mountains there are many narrow valleys, partially cultivated from an altitude of 12,000 ft. downwards, with here and there See also:

• FINE

fine forests covering the mountain sides . Villages of high See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone-built houses are to be found wherever the valley bottoms open out enough to afford a little space for See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture . The northern portion of Tibet is an arid and wind-swept See also:

• DESERT

desert; but in the southern portion the valleys of Lhasa, See also:

• SHIGATSE

Shigatse, See also:

• GYANTSE

Gyantse and the Brahmaputra are covered with See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good soil and groves of trees, well irrigated, and richly cultivated . The valley of the Brahmaputra (q.v.), or Yarn Tsang-po or simply Tsang-po—the river has also various See also:

• LOCAL

local names—is the great arterial valley of southern Tibet . On the south it is bounded by the Himalayas, on the north by a mountain-See also:

• SYSTEM

system still more vast .

This mountain-system was only vaguely known, in fact its existence throughout its length was only suspected, until Sven Hedin, during his journeys in 1906-1908, crossed it at several points . He found the system to form the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief physiographical feature of southern Tibet, and stated it to be " on the'whole the most massiverange on the crust of the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth, its average height above the sea-level being greater than that of the Himalayas . Its peaks are 4000 to 5000 feet See also:

• LOWER

lower than See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount See also:

• EVEREST, MOUNT
• EVEREST, SIR GEORGE (1790—1866)

Everest, but its passes average 3000 feet higher than the Himalayan passes." Its extreme breadth is about 120 M. in the central part, its northern limit being marked by the See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of lakes See also:

• RUNNING

running N.W. and S.E. between 300 and 33° N., beyond which the mountains of central Tibet are much lower . The system at no point narrows to a single range; generally there are three or four across its breadth . As a whole the system forms the See also:

• WATERSHED

watershed between See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers flowing to the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian Ocean—the Indus and its tributaries, Brahmaputra and its tributaries, and Salweenand the streams flowing into the undrained salt lakes to the north . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal ranges in the system are the Nien-chen-tang-la, called Kanchung-gangri in the west, the Targo-Gangri-Lapchung range, the very lofty Hlunpo-Gangri range, the Dingla range, &c . The whole system had been marked by inference on some maps before Hedin's discoveries, and named Gangri; Hedin proposed for it the name of Trans-See also:

• HIMALAYA

Himalaya . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology and See also:

• MINERAL

Mineral See also:

• WEALTH

Wealth.—Little is known of the See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological structure of the central regions of Tibet . The observations of See also:

• STRACHEY, SIR JOHN (1823—1907)
• STRACHEY, SIR RICHARD (1817-1908)

Strachey, See also:

• GODWIN, FRANCIS (1562-1633)
• GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1759-1797)
• GODWIN, WILLIAM

Godwin-See also:

• AUSTEN, JANE (1775-1817)

Austen and of See also:

• GRIESBACH
• GRIESBACH, JOHANN JAKOB (1745-1812)

Griesbach and other members of the Geological Survey of India only extend to the southern edge or rim of the great plateau, where vast alluvial deposits in See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal strata have been furrowed into deep ravines, while See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian explorers have but superficially examined the mountain regions of the north and north-east, and the See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• MISSION

mission to Lhasa in 1904 afforded observations merely along the See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade-route to that See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city . The See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general structure of the trans-Himalayan chains appears to indicate that the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis of upheaval of the whole vast See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of the Tibetan See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands is to be found on two approximately parallel lines, represented the one by the Kuen-lun and the other by a See also:

• LINE

line which is more or less coincident with the watershed between India and the central lake region, extending from Lake Pangong to Tengri Nor, the plateau enclosed between the two being wrinkled by See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor folds, of which the relative See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation is comparatively See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low, averaging from moo to 1500 ft . The strike of these folds is usually east and west and roughly parallel to the axes of elevation of the plateau . A remarkable economic feature is the almost universal See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold throughout Tibet .

The gold-digging is referred to in somewhat mythical terms by See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus . Every river which rises in Tibet washes down sands impregnated with gold, and it has been proved that this gold is not the product of intervening strata, but must have existed primarily in the crystalline rocks of the main axes of upheaval . In western Tibet the gold mines of Jalung have been worked since 1875 . They have been visited by native explorers of the Indian Survey, who reported that much gold was produced and remitted twice a See also:

• YEAR

year under a Chinese guard to See also:

• PEKING, or PEKIN

Peking . The Tibetan diggers collected together at the mines chiefly during the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter, when the See also:

• FROST (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch, vorst, Ger. Frost, from the common Teutonic verb meaning " to freeze," Dutch, vriezcn, Ger. frieren; the Indo-European root is seen in Lat. pruina, hoar-frost, cf. prurire, to itch, burn, pruna, burning coal, Sans
• FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD (1810–1877)

frost assisted to bind the loose alluvial soil and render excavation easy . These mines are within 200 M. of the Ladak frontier, near the sources of the Indus, at an elevation which cannot be less than 15,000 ft. above sea-level . They are worked in crude desultory See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion and are sometimes abandoned owing to the exorbitant imposts levied on gold See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production by Chinese and Tibetan officials . Between the Ladak frontier and Lhasa the plateau region teems with evidences of abandoned mines . These mines are excavations in the alluvial soil, never more than from 20 to 30 ft. deep . The researches of See also:

• PRJEVALSKY [PRZHEVALSKY], NIKOLAI MIKHAILOVICH (1839–1888)

Prjevalsky demonstrate that gold is plentiful in northern and eastern Tibet . Here Tungus diggers were encountered who had extracted handfuls of gold in small nuggets from a stream See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed at a depth which they stated to be no greater than 2 ft . Another scientific explorer, W .

Mesny, has observed similar evidences of the existence of gold at comparatively shallow depths in Koko Nor region, and records that he has seen nuggets, " varying from the See also:

• SIZE

size of a See also:

• PEA (Pisum)

pea to that of a See also:

• HAZEL (0. Eng. hresell; cf. Ger. Hasel, Swed. and Dan. Kassel, &c.,; Fr. noiselier, coudrier)

hazel-See also:

• NUT
• NUT (0. Eng. knutu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss; allied with Gael. cno; it is not of the same form as Lat. nux)

nut," in eastern Tibet.- The gold was almost pure and perfectly malleable . The Gork goldfields, which are visible from Koko Nor, are reported to have yielded to China considerable quantities of gold as lately as 1888 . They are now deserted . Prjevalsky, indeed, predicts of northern Tibet that it will prove a " second See also:

• CALIFORNIA
• CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Baja California)
• CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF

California " in course of See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . But little gold at present finds its way across the Tibetan passes to India; and the export to China has diminished of See also:

• LATE

late years . See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

Iron is found in eastern Tibet in the form of See also:

• PYRITES

pyrites, and is rudely smelted locally . Salt and borax exist in abundance in the western lake regions . The exportation of borax to India is only limited by the comparatively small demand . Lapis-lazuli and See also:

• MERCURY
• MERCURY (MERCU1uus)
• MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight = 2oo)

mercury are among the minor mineral products of the country . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—The climate of Tibet varies so greatly over the enormous area and different altitudes of the country that no two travellers agree precisely in their records . Tibet is affected by the south-west See also:

• MONSOON
• MONSOON (Arabic Mausim, season)

monsoon, just as the Pamirs are affected, but in varying degrees according to See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical position . In western Tibet, bordering the Kashmir frontier, the climate differs little from that of Ladak .

Intense dryness pervades the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere during nine months of the year; but little See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow falls, and the western passes are so little subject to intermittent falls of fresh snow as frequently to be traversable during the whole year See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round (see LADAKH) . Low temperatures are prevalent throughout these western regions, whose See also:

• BLEAK, or BLICK (Alburnus lucidus)

bleak 918 desolation is unrelieved by the existence of trees or vegetation of any size, and where the wind sweeps unchecked across vast expanses of arid plain . All the western region is but slightly affected by the monsoon . The central lake region, extending from the Kuen-lun to the Himalaya, is also characterized by extreme dryness in autumn, winter and See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring, with an abundance of See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain in summer, whilst the eastern mountain region, extending to China south of the Dang la (which, with an altitude of about 20,000 ft., stretches from 90° to 97° E. along the parallel of 33° N., and arrests the monsoon currents), is subject to much the same See also:

• CLIMATIC

climatic influences as the eastern Himalaya . The southern slopes of the Dang la are deluged with rain, See also:

• HAIL (O. Eng. kcegl and hagol, 1 cf. the cognate Teutonic hagel, as in German, Dutch, Swedish, &c.; the Gr. K&XX17E, pebble, is probably allied)

hail and snow throughout the 'year . Northern Tibet is an arid See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste, subject to intense See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat in summer and intense cold in winter . In See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March snow still lies deep in the See also:

• TSAIDAM

Tsaidam passes, while Wellby found the heat oppressive in See also:

• JUNE

June at 16,000 ft. elevation on the plateau south of the Kuen-lun, and a temperate climate prevailing about the sources of the Dre chu (Yangtsze) in See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August . All travellers testify to the perpetual wind currents from the west, which sweep across the salt bogs of Tsaidam (9500 ft.) and through the higher valleys of eastern Tibet . Wind is a prevailing feature throughout Tibet at certain seasons of the year, as it is in the Pamirs, in Turkestan, in western See also:

• AFGHANISTAN

Afghanistan and in See also:

• PERSIA

Persia . The climate of southern Tibet is, however, subject to considerable modifications from that of the northern and central regions, owing doubtless to its geographical connexion with northern India . Here, at an elevation of 15,000 ft., about the great Lake Dangra, we hear of well-built villages and of richly cultivated See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields of See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley, indicating a See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of climate analogous to that which prevails in the districts south of Lhasa, and in contrast to the sterility of the lake region generally and the nomadic character of its population . Modern travellers See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness to a See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual progress of See also:

• DESICCATION (from the Lat. desiccare, to dry up)

desiccation in the Tibetan uplands .

Everywhere there are signs of the diminution of the lakes and the recession of the water line—a phenomenon that has also been observed in the Pamirs . There are still enormous glaciers about the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the Brahmaputra, but the glacial See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch of the Chang-t'ang highlands has passed away, though comparatively recently . See also:

• FLORA

Flora.—Our knowledge of the flora of northern and central Tibet has been considerably increased by the collections of Prjevalsky, Wellby, See also:

• BOWER, WALTER (1385-1449)

Bower, Thorold, Littledale and the Lhasa Mission, and that of eastern Tibet by Rockhill . The former and other collections have been described in W . B . Hemsley's The Flora of Tibet or High Asia . Western and southern Tibetan flora were partially explored previously to the See also:

• ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

advent of these travellers . See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor Maximowicz concludes from an See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of the Prjevalsky collection that the flora of Tibet is extremely See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient, and that it is chiefly composed of immigrants from the Himalaya and Mongolia . There is also a large percentage of endemic See also:

• SPECIES

species . Chinese and See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• PLANTS

plants followed in the See also:

• PROCESS

process of See also:

• IMMIGRATION (from Lat. in, into, and tnigrare, to depart)

immigration . Those species which are distinctive of the eastern border ridges are found to reach the plateau, but do not spread westwards, so that a botanic separation or distinction is found to exist between the true plateau of Tibet in the west and the alpine tracts of the east . Thiselton-See also:

• DYER, JOHN (c. 1700-1758)
• DYER, SIR EDWARD (d. 1607)
• DYER, THOMAS HENRY (1804-1888)

Dyer classes the flora of Tibet on the whole as belonging to the See also:

• ARCTIC (Gr. "ApKroc, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

Arctic-Alpine See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of the great northern See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division, but containing a purely endemic See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element .

Two typical species are Lychnis apetala, which extends to See also:

• SPITSBERGEN (the name being Dutch is incorrectly, though commonly, spelled Spitzbergen)

Spitsbergen, and the well-known See also:

• EDELWEISS

edelweiss . A single See also:

• FERN (from O. Eng. fearn, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch varen, and Ger. Farn; the Indo-European root, seen in the Sanskrit parna, a feather, shows the primary meaning; cf. Gr. rmep6 , feather, rTepis, fern)

fern specimen obtained by Littledale (See also:

• POLYPODIUM

Polypodium hastatum) is indicative of eastern China . Of the See also:

• FORTY

forty or fifty genera obtained by Littledale in central Tibet a large proportion are British, including many of the most characteristic mountain forms . In the higher regions of northern and western Tibet the conditions under which vegetation exists are extreme . Here there are no trees, no shrubs, nor any plants above a See also:

• FOOT

foot high . Wellby says he saw nothing higher than an See also:

• ONION (Fr. oignon, Lat. unio, liberally unity, oneness, applied to a large pearl and to a species of onion)

onion . The See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar form of tussocky grass which prevails in the Pamirs is the characteristic feature of the Tibetan Chang-t'ang of the Tsaidam plains and of the bogs north-east of Lhasa . Of See also:

• GRASSES

grasses indeed there are many forms, some peculiar to Tibet, but no trees or shrubs at any elevation higher than 15,000 ft., except in the Kharo Pass of central Tibet, where Waddell has recorded trees ( ? Hippophae sp.) about 20 ft. high at an elevation of 16,300 ft . A flowering plant (Saussurea tridactyla) was discovered by Bower at an elevation of 19,000 ft . In south-eastern Tibet, where Himalayan conditions of climate prevail, we have a completely different class of flora . Of the flora of Tibet Rockhill writes: " In the ' hot lands ' (Tsa-rong) in southern and south-eastern Tibet, extending even to Batang, peaches, apricots, apples, plums, grapes, water-melons, &c., and even pomegranates, are raised; most of Tibet only produces a few varieties of vegetables, such as potatoes, turnips, beans, cabbages, onions, &c .

The principal cereals raised are barley and See also:

• BUCKWHEAT

buckwheat, See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat in small quantities, and a little oats . A few localities in the extreme southern portions of the country, and around Lhasa possibly, are said to produce a non-glutinous variety of See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice . A variety of mountain See also:

• BAMBOO

bamboo is found in southern and parts of eastern Tibet, and is much used for See also:

• BASKET

basket See also:

• WORK

work . Tibet produces a large number of medicinal plants much prized by the medical profession in China and Mongolia, among others the Cordyceps sinensis, the Coptis teeta, See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

Wall., and Pickorhiza kuwoa, See also:

• ROYLE, JOHN FORBES (1799—1858)

Royle, &c . See also:

• RHUBARB

Rhubarb is also found in great quantities in eastern Tibet and Amdo;it is largely exported for European use, but does not appear to be used medicinally in the country . The trees most commonly found are the See also:

• PLANE

plane, See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

poplar, See also:

• MAPLE, SIR JOHN BLUNDELL, BART

maple, See also:

• WALNUT (Juglans)

walnut, See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak, the Cupressus funebris, and various varieties of the genera Pinus, Abies and Larix . Some valuable plants are obtained in the mountains of south and south-western Tibet, yielding the excellent yellow and red See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours used to dye the native cloths." Waddell gives a See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of 164 species of plants collected by him at Lhasa, several being new species . See also:

• FAUNA

Fauna.—The fauna of Tibet has been by no means exhaustively investigated, especially the rodents and smaller species of animals . Among domesticated animals are to be found the See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse, See also:

• MULE (Lat. mulus)

mule, donkey, See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle, See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep and goats, See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs, fowls and pigs, ducks and geese . Probably no country in the world, excepting perhaps inner See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, so abounds in See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild animals as the cold solitudes of the northern plateau . Here are to be found See also:

• YAK

yak, wild asses (kyang), several varieties of See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer, See also:

• MUSK (Med. Lat. muscus, late Gr. µbvXos, possibly Pers. mushk, from Sansk. mushka, the scrotum)

musk deer and Tibetan See also:

• ANTELOPE

antelope (Pantholops) ; also wild sheep (the See also:

• BHARAL

bharal of the Himalaya), Ovis hodgsoni and possibly Ovis poli, together with wild goats, bears (in large See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers in the north-eastern districts), leopards, See also:

• OTTER
• OTTER (0. Eng. ate, otor, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch and Ger. Otter, Dan. odder, Swed. utter; it is to be referred to the root seen in Gr. 6&ep, water)
• OTTER, SEA

otter, wolves, wild See also:

• CATS, JACOB (1577-1660)

cats, foxes, marmots, squirrels, monkeys and wild dogs . To this list must be added the curious See also:

• SLOTH

sloth-bear Aeluropus melanoleucus, a rare eastern species, and the so-called " See also:

• UNICORN (Lat. unicornis, for Gr. µovoKepws, having one horn; Fr. licorne; Ital. alicorno)

unicorn " antelopes, the " takyin " (Budorcas taxicolor) , also an eastern Indo-Malayan species .

Birds are fairly numerous, and include many varieties of water-See also:

• FOWL (Dan. Fugl, Ger. Vogel)

fowl, several of which (Anser indicus, the See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar-headed See also:

• GOOSE (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. gOs, pl. ges, Ger. Gans, O. Norse gas, from Aryan root, ghans, whence Sans. hansa, Lat. anser (for hanser)
• GOOSE (GAME OF)

goose, for instance) breed in Tibet, while others are only found as birds of passage . In eastern Tibet, on the Chinese border, varieties of the See also:

• PHEASANT

pheasant tribe abound, some of which are rare . Among them are the " See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white " pheasant, the Ceriornis temminckii, two kinds of eared pheasant and See also:

• ANDERSON
• ANDERSON, ADAM (1692—1765)
• ANDERSON, ALEXANDER (c. 1582-1620?)
• ANDERSON, ELIZABETH GARRETT (1836— )
• ANDERSON, JAMES (1662—1728)
• ANDERSON, JAMES (1739-1808)
• ANDERSON, JOHN (1726-1796)
• ANDERSON, MARY (1859– )
• ANDERSON, RICHARD HENRY (1821–1879)
• ANDERSON, ROBERT (1750–1830)
• ANDERSON, SIR EDMUND (1530-1605)

Anderson's pheasant . The Tibetan See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand-See also:

• GROUSE

grouse is peculiar to the country, and the snow-See also:

• PARTRIDGE (Du. Patrijs, Fr. perdrix, from Lat. perdix, apparently onomatopoeic from the call of the bird)
• PARTRIDGE, JOHN BERNARD (1861– )
• PARTRIDGE, WILLIAM ORDWAY (1861– )

partridge (Lerva nivicola) and the snow-See also:

• COCK, EDWARD (1805-1892)

cock (Tetraogallus tibetanus) are occasionally met with in the uplands, while the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary partridge (Perdix hodgsoni) is common in the ravines on the plateau . People.—The Tibetan See also:

• RACE

race, which probably belongs to the Turko-Mongol stock, is divided between the nomadic See also:

• TENT

tent-dwelling Tibetans of the lake region and transition See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone between it and the river region, and the settled sedentary population of the valleys . The tent-dwelling Tibetans, called Dokpa or Drupa (spelt hbrog-pa), or " See also:

• STEPPE (from the Russ. stepi, a waste)

Steppe-dwellers," are generally of a more Mongolized type than the people of the lowlands . The See also:

• MALES

males measure about 5 ft . 5 in., except in eastern Tibet, where 5 ft . 9 in. is a common stature; the See also:

• FEMALES

females are appreciably less . The head is mesati-cephalic, verging on See also:

• BRACHYCEPHALIC (Gr. for short-headed)

brachycephalic in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of many of the Dokpa; the See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair is See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black and somewhat wavy; the eyes are usually of a clear See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown, in some cases even hazel; the cheek-bones are high, but not so high as with the Mongols; the See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose is thick, sometimes depressed at the See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root, in other cases prominent, even aquiline, though the nostrils are broad . The See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth are strong but irregular; the ears, with tolerably large lobes, stand out from the head, but to a less degree than with the Mongols . The mouth is broad, the lips not full, and, among the people of the lower altitudes, decidedly thin .

The See also:

• BEARD (A.S. beard, O. H. and Mod. Ger. Bart, Dan. beard, Icel. bar, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slay. barda, Russ. barodd. Cf. Welsh barf, Lat.. barba, though, according to the New English Dictionary, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful)
• BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900)

beard is sparse, and, with the exception of the See also:

• MOUSTACHE, or MUSTACHIO

moustache, which is sometimes worn, especially in central Tibet, it is plucked out with See also:

• TWEEZERS

tweezers . The shoulders are broad, the arms round; the legs are not well See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed, the See also:

• CALF
• CALF, THE GOLDEN

calf is especially small . The foot is somewhat small but broad, the See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand coarse . The See also:

• WOMEN

women are usually stouter than the men . The See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour of the skin of the Tibetans is a See also:

• LIGHT

light brown, sometimes so light as to show ruddy cheeks in See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children; where exposed to the See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather it becomes a dark brown . .Their voices are full, deep and powerful . They can endure exposure without much apparent inconvenience; and though the nature of the See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food they use is such that they cannot stand See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute privation for any considerable length of time, they can exist for See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long periods on See also:

• STARVATION

starvation rations, if eked out with weak soup or buttered See also:

• TEA (Chinese cha, Amoy dialect t€)

tea, which is drunk at frequent intervals . The sedentary population of Tibet has to a greater or less degree the same See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical traits as the Dokpa, but as one approaches China, India or the border lands generally, one observes that the admixture of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• BLOOD

blood has considerably modified the See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive type . Among the customs of the Tibetans, perhaps the most peculiar is See also:

• POLYANDRY (Gr. iroXus, many, and 6.vi7P, man)

polyandry, the See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers in a See also:

• FAMILY

family having one wife in common . Monogamy, however, seems to be the See also:

• RULE

rule among the pastoral tribes, and See also:

• POLYGAMY, (Gr. nabs, many, and yayos, marriage)

polygamy is not unknown in Tibet, especially in the eastern parts of the country . Their See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion is described under See also:

• LAMAISM

LAMAISM . (L .

A . W.; T . H . H.') See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

Language.—The language of Tibet bears no See also:

• SPECIAL

special name, it is merely known as " The Speech of Bod or Tibet," namely, Bod-skad (pronounced Bhd-ka), while the See also:

• VERNACULAR (Lat. verna, dim. vernaculus, a slave horn in his master's house)

vernacular is called P'al-skad or " vulgar speech," in contradistinction to the rje-sa or " polite respectful speech " of the educated classes, and the ch'os-skad or " See also:

• BOOK

book language," the See also:

• LITERARY

literary See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style in which the scriptures and other classical See also:

• WORKS

works are written . It is not a See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform speech, but comprises several dialects which have been classed by Jaeschke into three See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups, namely (i.) the central or the dialects of Lhasa and the central provinces of U and Tsang (including See also:

• SPITI

Spiti) which is the lingua franca of the whole country, (2) the western dialects of Ladak, Lahul, Baltistan and Purig, and (3) the eastern dialects of the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Khams . In addition to these, however, are many sub-dialects of Tibetan spoken in the frontier Himalayan districts and states outside Tibet, namely, in Kunawar and See also:

• BASHAHR, or BISAHIR

Bashahr, See also:

• GARHWAL, or GURWAL

Garhwal, See also:

• KUMAON

Kumaon, Nepal including especially the Serpa and Murmi of eastern Nepal, See also:

• SIKKIM

Sikkim (where the dialect is called Danjong-ka), Bhutan (Lho-ka or Duk-ka), all of which are affiliated to a central See also:

• GROUP

group of dialects . Farther east the Takpa of Tawang in the eastern See also:

• ASSAM

Assam Himalayas appears to form a transition between the central and the Sifan group of dialects on the Chinese frontier, which includes the Minyak, Sungpan, Lifan and Tochu dialects . On the north bordering on Turkestan the dialect of the nomadic See also:

• HOR, MOUNT (nirt)

Hor-pa tribes is much mixed with Turkic ingredients . The number of speakers of Tibetan dialects is probably not far See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short of eight millions . Linguistically, Tibetan is allied to the Burmese See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages, and forms with the latter a family of the so-called Turano-Scythian stock called " Tibeto-Burman (q.v.), the unity of which family was first recognized by See also:

• BRIAN (926-1014)

Brian See also:

• HODGSON, BRIAN HOUGHTON (1800-1894)

Hodgson in 1828, and indeed several of the dialects of Tibetan are still only known through the copious vocabularies collected by him . The little that was known of the Tibetan language before Hodgson's time was mainly derived from the writings of the Romish friars who resided for several years in Lhasa in the first See also:

• HALF

half of the 18th century.' The first serious European student of Tibetan was Csoma de Koros (1784–1842), an indefatigable Hungarian, who devoted his See also:

• LIFE

life to the study of this language and the ancient Buddhist records enshrined in its unknown literature . For this purpose he resided like a See also:

• MONK (O.Eng. munuc; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g. Du. monnik, Ger. Witch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital. monacho and Span. monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adaptedfrom Gr. µovaXos, one living alone, a solitary; Own, alone)
• MONK (or MONCK), GEORGE
• MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856)
• MONK, MARIA (c. 1817—1850)

monk for several years among the lamas at the monasteries of Zangla and Pukdal in Zanskar and latterly at Kanum in upper Bashahr, enjoying the assistance of learned lamas .

His Tibetan-English See also:

• DICTIONARY

Dictionary, and See also:

• PIONEER

pioneer Tibetan See also:

• GRAM

Gram-mar, both published in 1834, opened to Europeans the way to acquire a knowledge of the Tibetan language as found in the ancient See also:

• CLASSICS