See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

TIN (See also:

• LAT

Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol " Sn "; atomic See also:

• WEIGHT

weight =117.6, 0=16)  , a metallic chemical See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element . Being a component of See also:

• BRONZE

bronze, it was used as a See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal thousands of years See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

prior to the See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn of See also:

• HISTORY

history; but it does not follow that prehistoric bronzes were made from metallic See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin . When the unalloyed metal was first introduced cannot be ascertained with certainty . The ." tin " of the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible (Kaavlmpos in the See also:

• SEPTUAGINT, THE (Gr. of 0', Lat. LXX.)

Septuagint) corresponds to the See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew bedhil, which is really a See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper alloy known as See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early as 1600 B.C. in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt . All we know is that about the 1st See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek word Ka?QimEpos designated tin, and that tin was imported from See also:

• CORNWALL

Cornwall into See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy after, if not before, the invasion of See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain by See also:

• JULIUS

Julius See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar . From See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny's writings it appears that the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans in his See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time did not realize the distinction between tin and See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead: the former was called plumbum See also:

• ALBUM (Lat. albus, white)

album or candidum to distinguish it from plumbum nigrum (lead proper) . The word stannum definitely assumed its See also:

• PRESENT

present meaning in the 4th century (H . See also:

• KOPP, HERMANN FRANZ MORITZ (1817-1892)

Kopp) . By the early Greek alchemists the metal was named See also:

• HERMES
• HERMES, GEORG (1775-1831)

Hermes, but at about the beginning of the 6th century, it was termed Zeusor See also:

• JUPITER

Jupiter, and the See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol 2( assigned to it; it was also referred to as diabolus metallorum, on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the brittle See also:

• ALLOYS (through the Fr. aloyer, from Lat. alligare, to combine)

alloys which it formed.9'95 Occurrence.-Grains of metallic tin occur intermingled with the See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold ores of See also:

• SIBERIA

Siberia, See also:

• GUIANA (Guyana, Guayana')

Guiana and See also:

• BOLIVIA

Bolivia, and in a few other localities . Of minerals containing this element mention may be made of cassiterite (q.v.) or tinstone, SnO2, tin See also:

• PYRITES

pyrites, Cu4SnS4+(Fe,Zn)2SnS4; the metal also occurs in some epidotes, and in See also:

• COMPANY

company with See also:

• COLUMBIUM, or NIOBIUM (symbol Cb or Nb, atomic weight 94)

columbium, See also:

• TANTALUM [symbol Ta, atomic weight 181•o (0=16)]

tantalum and other metals . Of these " tinstone " is of the greatest commercial importance . It occurs in its See also:

• MATRIX

matrix, either in or closely associated with fissure See also:

• VEINS

veins or disseminated through See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock masses .

It is also found in the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of rolled lumps and grains, " stream tin," in alluvial gravels; the latter are secondary deposits, the products of the disintegration of the first-named See also:

• PRIMARY

primary deposits . Throughout the See also:

• WORLD

world, primary deposits of tinstone are in or closely connected with See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite or See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid eruptive rocks of the same type, its See also:

• MINERAL

mineral associates being See also:

• TOURMALINE

tourmaline, fluorspar, See also:

• TOPAZ

topaz, wolfram and arsenical pyrites, and the invariable See also:

• GANGUE, or CANG

gangue being See also:

• QUARTZ

quartz: the only exception to this mode of occurrence is to be found in Bolivia, where the tin ore occurs intimately associated .with See also:

• SILVER

silver ores, See also:

• BISMUTH

bismuth ores and various sulphides, whilst the gangue includes See also:

• BARYTES

barytes and certain See also:

• CARBONATES

carbonates . Over five-sixths of the world,'s See also:

• TOTAL

total See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production is derived from secondary alluvial deposits, but all the tin obtained in Cornwall (the alluvial deposits having been worked out) and Bolivia is from vein See also:

• MINING

mining, while a small portion of that yielded by See also:

• AUSTRALASIA

Australasia comes from veins and from granitic rocks carrying disseminated tinstone . Production.—During ' the 18th century the world's See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of tin was mainly See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from the deposits of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony and Bohemia; in 18ai England produced about 2500 tons, while the supplies of Saxony and Bohemia See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad been greatly diminished . The See also:

• ENGLISH

English supply increased, with some oscillations, to between six and seven thousand tons annually in the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period 184o-186o, when it suddenly See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose to about so,000 tons, and this figure was fairly well sustained until about 189o, rwhpn a period of depression set in; the yield for 1900 was 4336 tons, and for egos about 4200 tons . In the opening decades of the 19th century supplies began to be drawn from See also:

• BANKA (BANCA, BANGKA)

Banka; in i82o this See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island contributed 1200 tons; the production was increased to 12,000 tons in 1900, when a diminution set in, .996o tons being the output during 1905 . See also:

• BILLITON (Dutch Blitoeng)

Billiton became of See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note in 1853 with a production of 40 tons, which increased to;6000 in 1goo and has since declined to about 3000 tons in 1905 . The Straits Settlements ranked as an important producer in 187o with 2337 tons; it now supplies the greater See also:

• PART

part of the world's supply, contributing 46,795 tons in 1900, and over 6o,000 tons in 1905 . Australian deposits were worked in 1872, and in the following See also:

• YEAR

year the production was 3000 tons; the maximum outputs were in 1881-1883, averaging Io,000 tons annually; but the supply declined to 2420 tons in 1898 and has since increased to about 5028 tons in 1905 . Bolivia produced Sol tons in 1883, 10,245 in 1900 and 12,500 in 1905 . The world's supply in woo was 72,911 See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long tons; this increased in 1904 to 97,790 tons, but in 1905, principally owing to a shortage in the supplies from the Straits and Banka, the yield See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell to 94,089 tons . Metallurgy.—The operations in the metallurgy of tin may be enumerated as: (1) mining and dressing, (2) smelting, (3) refining .

The first See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage has for its purpose the production of a fairly pure tinstone; the second the See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion of the See also:

• OXIDE

oxide into metallic tin; and the third preparing a tin pure enough for commercial purposes . Mining and Dressing.—The alluvial deposits are almost invariably worked opencast, those of the See also:

• MALAY

Malay See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

Peninsula and See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

Archipelago chiefly by See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese labour: in a few instances See also:

• HYDRAULIC

hydraulic mining has been resorted to, and in other cases true underground mining is carried on; but the latter is both exceptional and difficult . The alluvial extracted, which in the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago carries from 5 to 6o lb of tinstone (or " See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black tin," as it is termed by Cornish miners) to the cubic yard of See also:

• GRAVEL, or PEBBLE BEDS

gravel, is washed in various See also:

• SIMPLE

simple sluicing appliances, by which the lighter See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay, See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand and stones are removed and tinstone is See also:

• LEFT

left behind comparatively pure, containing usually 65 to 75% of metallic tin (chemically pure tinstone contains 78.7 %) . Lode tin, as tinstone derived from primary deposits is often termed, is See also:

• MINED

mined in the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary method, the very hard gangue 'in which it occurs necessitating a liberal use of See also:

• EXPLOSIVES

explosives . The vein-stuff is broken small either by See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand or in rock-breakers, and stamped to See also:

• FINE

fine See also:

• POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust)

powder in See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

stamp See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills, which are practically large mechanically-worked pestles and mortars, the stamp proper weighing from Soo to moo lb . The mineral, crushed small enough to pass a See also:

• SIEVE (O.E. sife, older sibi, cf. Dutch zeef, Ger. Sieb; from the subst. comes O.E. siftan, to sift)

sieve with perforations 21a in. in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter, leaves the stamps in suspension in See also:

• WATER

water, and passes through a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of troughs in which the heavier mineral is collected; this then passes through a series of washing operations, which leaves a mixture consisting chiefly of tinstone and arsenical pyrites, which is calcined and washed again, until finally black tin containing about 6o to 65% of metal is left . The calcination is preferably effected in See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical roasters, it being especially necessary to agitate the ore continually, otherwise it cakes . The crude tinstuff raised in Cornwall carries on an See also:

• AVERAGE

average a little over 2% of black tin . The Bolivian tin ore is treated by first extracting the silver by amalgamation, &c., and afterwards concentrating the residues; there are, however, considerable difficulties in the way of treating the poorer of these very complex ores, and several chemical processes for extracting their metallic contents have been worked out . Of the impurities of the ore the See also:

• WOLFRAMITE, or WOLFRAM

wolframite (tungstate of See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron and See also:

• MANGANESE (symbol Mn; atomic weight, 54.93 (0=16)], a metallic chemical element. Its dioxide (pyrolusite)

manganese) is the most troublesome, because on account of its high specific gravity it cannot be washed away as gangue . To remove it, Oxland fuses the ore with a certain proportion of carbonate of soda, which suffices to convert the See also:

• TUNGSTEN [symbol W, atomic weight 184.o (0=16)]

tungsten into soluble alkaline tungstate, without producing noteworthy 'quantities of soluble stannate from the oxide of tin; the tungstate is easily removed by treatment with water . 2 .

Smelting.—The dressed ore is smelted with See also:

• CARBON (symbol C, atomic weight 12)

carbon by one of two See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main methods, viz. either in the See also:

• SHAFT
• SHAFT (O. Eng., sceaft, from scafan, to shave; the word is common to Teutonic languages)

shaft See also:

• FURNACE

furnace or the reverberatory; the former is the better suited to stream tin, the latter to lode tin, but either ore can be smelted in either way, although reverberatory practice yields a purer metal . Shaft furnace smelting is confined to those parts of the world where See also:

• CHARCOAL

charcoal can still be obtained in large quantities at moderate prices . The furnace consists of a shaft, circular (or more rarely rectangular) in See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan, into which alternate layers of See also:

• FUEL (O. Fr. feuaile, popular Lat. focalia, from focus, hearth, fire)

fuel and ore are charged, an See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air blast being generally injected near to the bottom of the furnace through one or more tuyeres . This was the See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• PROCESS

process all over the world ; in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East, See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• AMERICA

America and similar regions it still holds its own . In See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, Australasia and one large See also:

• WORKS

works at See also:

• SINGAPORE (Malay, Singapiira, i.e. " The City of the Lion")

Singapore it has been practically replaced by the reverberatory furnace process, first introduced into Cornwall about the year 1700 . In this process the purified ore is mixed with about one-fifth of its See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of a non-caking See also:

• COAL

coal or See also:

• ANTHRACITE (Gr. avOpaE, coal)

anthracite smalls, the mixture being moistened to prevent it from being blown off by the See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught, and is then fused on the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole of a reverberatory furnace for five or six See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours . The slag and metal produced are then run off and the latter is See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast into bars; these are in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general contaminated with,iron, See also:

• ARSENIC (symbol As, atomic weight 75.0)

arsenic, copper and other impurities . 3 . Refining.—All tin, except a small quantity produced by the shaft furnace process from exceptionally pure stream tin ore, requires refining by liquation and " boiling " before it is ready for the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market . In the English process the bars are heated cautiously on an inclined See also:

• HEARTH (a word which appears in various forms in several Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch haard, German Herd, in the sense of " floor ")

hearth, when relatively pure tin runs off, while a See also:

• SKELETON

skeleton of impure metal remains . The metal run off is further purified by poling, i.e. by stirring it with the See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of a See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree—the See also:

• APPLE (a common Teut. word, A.S. aepl, aeppel, O.H.G. aphul, aphal, apfal, mod. Ger. Apfel)

apple tree being preferred traditionally . This operation is no doubt intended to remove the See also:

• OXYGEN (symbol 0, atomic weight 16)

oxygen diffused throughout the metal as oxide, part of it perhaps chemically by reduction of the oxide to metal, the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest by conveying the finely diffused oxide to the See also:

• SURFACE

surface and causing it to unite there with the oxide scum .

After this the metal is allowed to rest for a time in the pot at a temperature above its freezing point and is then ladled out into See also:

• INGOT

ingot forms, care being taken at each stage to ladle off the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top stratum . The See also:

• ORIGINAL

original top stratum is the purest, and each succeeding See also:

• LOWER

lower stratum has a greater proportion of impurities; the lowest consists largely of a solid or semi-solid alloy of tin and iron . To test the purity of the metal the tin-smelter heats the bars to a certain temperature just below the fusing point, and then strikes them with a See also:

• HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862)

hammer or lets them fall on a See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor from a given height . If the tin is pure it splits into a See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of granular strings . Tin which has been thus manipulated and proved incidentally to be very pure is sold as See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain tin . A lower quality goes by the name of See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block tin . Of the several commercial varieties Banka tin is the purest; it is indeed almost chemically pure . Next comes English grain tin . For the preparation of chemically pure tin two methods are employed . (I) Commercially pure tin is treated with nitric acid, which converts the tin proper into the insoluble metastannic acid, while the copper, iron, &c., become nitrates; the metastannic acid is washed first with dilute nitric acid, then with water, and is lastly dried and reduced by See also:

• FUSION

fusion with black See also:

• FLUX (Lat. fluxus, a flowing; this being also the meaning of the English term in medicine, &c.)

flux or See also:

• POTASSIUM [symbol K (from kalium), atomic weight 39.114 0=16)]

potassium See also:

• CYANIDE

cyanide . (2) A See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution of pure stannous chloride in very dilute hydrochloric acid is reduced with an electric current . According to Stolba, beautiful crystals of pure tin can be obtained as follows: A See also:

• PLATINUM [symbol Pt, atomic weight 145.0 (0=16)]

platinum See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin, coated over with See also:

• WAX

wax or See also:

• PARAFFIN

paraffin outside, except a small circle at the very lowest point, is placed on a See also:

• PLATE

plate of amalgamated See also:

• ZINC

zinc, lying on the bottom of a See also:

• BEAKER (Scottish bicker, Lat. bicarium, Ger. Becher, a drinking-bowl)

beaker, and is filled with a solution of pure stannous chloride .

The beaker also is cautiously filled with acidulated water up to a point beyond the edge of the platinum basin . The whole is then left to itself, when crystals of tin gradually See also:

• SEPARATE

separate out on the bottom of the basin . Properties.—An ingot of tin is pure See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white (except for a slight tinge of See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue) ; the See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour depends, however, upon the temperature at which it is poured—if too See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low, the surface is dull, if too high, iridescent . It exhibits considerable lustre and is not subject to tarnishing on exposure to normal air . The metal is See also:

• PRETTY

pretty soft and easily flattened out under the hammer, but almost devoid of tenacity., That it is elastic, with narrow limits, is proved by its clear See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring when struck with a hard See also:

• BODY

body in circumstances permitting of See also:

• FREE

free vibration . The specific gravity of cast tin is 7.29, of rolled tin 7.299, and of electrically deposited tin 7.143 to 7.178 . A tin ingot is distinctly crystalline; hence the characteristic crackling See also:

• NOISE (a word of doubtful origin; O. Fr. nogse or nose; Prov. nausa, which points to Lat. nausea, sickness, as the origin; others take Lat. noxia, harm, as the source)

noise, or " cry " of tin, which a See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar of tin gives out when being See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent: This structure can be rendered visible by superficial See also:

• ETCHING (Dutch, etsen, to eat)

etching with dilute acid; and as the minuter crystals dissolve more quickly than the larger ones, the surface assumes a frosted See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance (moiree metallique) . The metal is dimorphous: by cooling molten tin at ordinary air temperature tetragonal crystals are obtained, while by cooling at a temperature just below the melting point rhombic forms are produced . When exposed for a sufficient time to very low temperatures (to -39° C. for 14 hours), tin becomes so brittle that it falls into a See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey powder, termed the grey modification, under a pestle; it indeed sometimes crumbles into powder spontaneously . At ordinary temperatures tin proves fairly ductile under the hammer, and its ductility seems to increase as the temperature rises up to about See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo° C . At some temperature near its fusing point it becomes brittle, and still more brittle from -14° C. downwards . Iron renders the metal hard and brittle; arsenic, See also:

• ANTIMONY (symbol Sb, atomic weight 120.2)

antimony and bismuth (up to 0.5%) reduce its tenacity; copper and lead (1 to 2 %) make it harder and stronger but impair its malleability; and stannous oxide reduces its tenacity Tin fuses at about 230° C.; at a red See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat it begins to volatilize slowly; at 1600° to 1800° C. it boils .

The hot vapour produced combines with the oxygen of the air into white oxide, SnO2 . Its coefficient of linear expansion between o° and loo° is 0.002717; its specific heat (3.6562; its thermal and See also:

• ELECTRICAL
• ELECTRICAL (or ELECTROSTATIC) MACHINE

electrical conductivities are 145 to 152 and 114.5 to 140.1 respectively compared to silver as 10oo . See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

Industrial Applications.--Commercially pure tin is used for making such apparatus as evaporating basins, infusion pots, stills, &c . It is also employed for making two varieties of tin-See also:

• FOIL

foil--one for the silvering of mirrors (see See also:

• MIRROR (through O. Fr. mirour, mod. miroir, from a sup-posed Late Lat. miratorium, from mirari, to admire)

MIRROR), the other for wrapping up See also:

• CHOCOLATE

chocolate, See also:

• TOILET

toilet See also:

• SOAP

soap, See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco, &c . The mirror foil must contain some copper to prevent it from being too readily amalgamated by the See also:

• MERCURY
• MERCURY (MERCU1uus)
• MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight = 2oo)

mercury . For making tin-foil the metal is rolled into thin sheets, pieces of which are beaten out with a wooden See also:

• MALLET (or MALLOCH), DAVID (?17o5–1765)
• MALLET, PAUL HENRI (173o–18o7)

mallet . As pure tin does not tarnish in the air and is See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof against acid liquids, such as See also:

• VINEGAR

vinegar, See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime juice, &c., it is utilized for culinary and domestic vessels . But it is expensive, and tin vessels have to be made very heavy to give them sufficient stability of form; hence it is generally employed merely as a protecting coating for utensils made essentially of topper or iron . The tinning of a copper basin is an easy operation . The basin, made scrupulously clean, is heated to beyond the fusing point of tin . Molten tin is then poured in, a little powdered sal-ammoniac added, and the tin spread over the inside with a bunch of See also:

• TOW

tow . The sal-ammoniac removes the last unavoidable film of oxide, leaving a purely metallic surface, to which the tin adheres firmly .

For tinning small See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of copper or See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass (i.e. pins, hooks, &c.) a wet-way process is followed . One part of cream of See also:

• TARTAR

tartar, two of See also:

• ALUM

alum and two of See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt are dissolved in boiling water, and the solution is boiled with granulated metallic tin (or, better, mixed with a little stannous chloride) to produce a tin solution; and into this the articles are put at a boiling heat . In the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of metallic tin -thereis no visible See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change; but, as soon as the metal is introduced, an electrolytic See also:

• ACTION

action sets in and the articles get coated over with a firmly adhering film of tin . Tinning wrought iron is effected by See also:

• IMMERSION (Lat. immersio, dipping),

immersion . The most important form of the operation is making tinned from ordinary See also:

• SHEET

sheet iron (making what is called " sheet tin "): This process was mentioned by See also:

• AGRICOLA (originally SCHNEIDER, then SCHNITTER), JOHANNES (1494-1566)
• AGRICOLA (the Latinized form of the name BAUER), GEORG (1490-1555)
• AGRICOLA, CHRISTOPH LUDWIG (1667-1719)
• AGRICOLA, GNAEUS JULIUS (A.D. 37-93)
• AGRICOLA, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1720-1774)
• AGRICOLA, MARTIN (c. 1500-1556)
• AGRICOLA, RODOLPHUS (properly ROELOF HUYSMANN) (1443-1485)

Agricola ; it was practised in Bohemia in 162o, and in England a century later . The iron plates, having been carefully cleaned with sand and hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, and lastly with water, are plunged into heated See also:

• TALLOW (M.E. talugh, talg, cf. Du. talk, L. Ger. talg ; the connexion with O.E. taelg, dye, or Goth, tulgus, firm, is doubtful)

tallow to drive away the water without oxidation of the metal . They are next steeped in a See also:

• BATH
• BATH, THOMAS THYNNE
• BATH, WILLIAM

bath, first of molten ferruginous, then of pure tin . They are then taken out and kept suspended in hot tallow to enable the surplus tin to run off . The tin of the second bath dissolves iron gradually and becomes See also:

• FIT

fit for the first bath . To tin cast-iron articles they must be decarburetted superficially by ignition within a bath of ferric oxide (powdered See also:

• HAEMATITE, or HEMATITE

haematite or similar material), then cleaned with acid, and tinned by immersion, as explained above . (See TIN-PLATE.) By far the greater part of the tin produced metallurgically is used for making tin alloys (see See also:

• PEWTER

PEWTER, BRONZE) . Compounds of Tin .

Tin forms two well-marked series of salts, in one of which it is divalent, these salts being derived from stannous oxide, SnO, in the other it is tetravalent, this series being derived from stannic oxide, SnO2 . Stannous Oxide, SnO, is obtained in the hydrated form Sn2O(OH)2 from a solution of stannous chloride by addition of See also:

• SODIUM [symbol Na, from Lat. natrium; atomic weight 23.00 (0=16)]

sodium carbonate; it forms a white precipitate, which can be washed with air-free water and dried at 8o° C. without much change by oxidation ; if it be heated in carbon dioxide the black SnO remains . Precipitated stannous See also:

• HYDRATE

hydrate dissolves readily in See also:

• CAUSTIC (Gr. rcavvraubs, burning)

caustic potash; if the solution is evaporated quickly it suffers decomposition, with formation of metal and stannate, 2SnO-1-2KOH =KiSnOs+Sn+See also:

• H2O (combined)

H2O . If it is evaporated slowly, anhydrous stannous oxide crystallizes out in forms which are combinations of the See also:

• CUBE (Gr. K46os, a cube)

cube and See also:

• DODECAHEDRON (Gr. Melia, twelve, and ESpa, a face or base)

dodecahedron . Dry stannous oxide, if touched with a glowing body, catches See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire and See also:

• BURNS, JOHN (1858– )
• BURNS, ROBERT (1759-1796)
• BURNS, SIR GEORGE

burns to stannic oxide, SnO2 . Stannous oxalate when heated by itself in a See also:

• TUBE (Lat. tuba)

tube leaves stannous oxide . Stannic Oxide, SnOi.—This, if the See also:

• TERM

term is taken to include the hydrates, exists in a variety of forms . (1) Tinstone (see above and also CASSITERITE) is proof against all acids . Its disintegration for See also:

• ANALYTICAL

analytical purposes can be effected by fusion with caustic See also:

• ALKALI

alkali in silver basins, with the formation of soluble stannate, or by fusion with See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur and sodium carbonate, with the formation of a soluble thiostannate . (2) A similar oxide (flares jovis) is produced by burning tin in air at high temperatures or exposing any of the hydrates to a strong red heat . Such tin-ash, as it is called, is used for the polishing of See also:

• OPTICAL

optical glasses . See also:

• FLORES

Flores stanni is a finely divided mixture of the metal and oxide obtained by fusing the metal in the presence of air for some time .

(3) Metastannic acid (generally written HioSn6Oio, to account for the complicated See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition of metastannates, e.g. the sodium salt HsNa2Sn50ie) is the white See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound produced from the metal by means of nitric acid . It is insoluble in water and in nitric acid and apparently so in hydrochloric acid; but if heated with this last for some time it passes into a compound, which, after the acid See also:

• MOTHER

mother liquor has been decanted off, dissolves in water . The solution when subjected to See also:

• DISTILLATION (from the Lat. distillare, more correctly destillare, to drop or trickle down)

distillation behaves very much like a See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical solution of the oxide in hydrochloric acid, while a solution of orthostannic acid in hydrochloric acid behaves like a solution of SnCl4 in water, i.e. gives off no hydrochloric acid, and no precipitate of hydrated SnO2 . Metastannic acid is distinguished from orthostannic acid by its insolubility in nitric and sulphuric acids . The salts are obtained by the action of alkalies on the acid . (4) Orthostannic acid is obtained as a white precipitate on the addition of sodium carbonate or the exact quantity of precipitated See also:

• CALCIUM [symbol Ca, atomic weight 40.0 (o= x6)]

calcium carbonate to a solution of the chloride . This acid, H2SnOs, is readily soluble in acids forming stannic salts, and in caustic potash and soda, with the formation of orthostannates . Of these sodium stannate, Na2SnOs, is produced industrially by See also:

• HEATING

heating tin with See also:

• CHILE, or CHILI (derived, it is said, from the Quichua chin , cold, or tchili, snow)

Chile See also:

• SALTPETRE (from the Lat. sal, salt, Petra, a rock)

saltpetre and caustic soda, or by fusing very finely powdered tinstone with caustic soda in iron vessels . A solution of the pure salt yields fine prisms of the composition Na2SnOi+IoH2O, which effloresce in the air . The salt is used as a See also:

• MORDANT

mordant in See also:

• DYEING (0. Eng. dedgian, dealt ; Mid. Eng. deyen)

dyeing and See also:

• CALICO

calico-See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

printing . Alkaline and other stannates when treated with aqueous hydrofluoric acid are converted into fluostannates (e.g . K2SnOs into K2SnFs), which are closely analogous to, and isomorphous with, fluosilicates .

A colloidal or soluble stannic acid is obtained by dialysing a mixture of tin tetrachloride and alkali, or of sodium stannate and hydrochloric acid . On heating it is converted into colloidal metastannic acid . A hydrated tin trioxide, SnO2, was obtained by See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

Spring by adding See also:

• BARIUM (symbol Ba, atomic weight 137'37 [0=16])

barium dioxide to a solution of stannous chloride and hydrochloric acid; the solution is dialysed, and the colloidal solution is evaporated to form a white mass of 2SnOs•H2O . Stannous Chloride, SnCl2, can only be obtained pure by heating pure tin in a current of pure dry hydrochloric acid See also:

• GAS

gas . It is a white solid, fusing at 2 o° C. to an oily liquid which boils at 6o6%, and volatilizing at a red heat in See also:

• NITROGEN [symbol N., atomic weight 14.01, 0=16]

nitrogen, a vacuum or hydrochloric acid, without decomposition . The vapour See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density below 700° C. corresponds to Sn2Cl4, above 800° C. to nearly SnCl2 . The chloride readily combines with water to form a crystallizable hydrate SnCl2.2H20, known as " tin salt " or " tin crystals." This salt is also formed by dissolving tin in strong hydrochloric acid and allowing it to crystallize, and is industrially prepared by passing sufficiently hydrated hydrochloric acid gas over granulated tin contained in stoneware bottles and evaporating the concentrated solution produced in tin basins over granulated tin . The basin itself is not attacked . The crystals are very soluble in See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold water, and if the salt is really pure a small proportion of water forms a clear solution; but on adding much water most of the salt is decomposed, with the formation of a precipitate of oxychloride, 2Sn(OH)Cl•H20 . According to See also:

• MICHEL
• MICHEL, CLAUDE
• MICHEL, FRANCISQUE XAVIER (1809-1887)

Michel and Kraft, one litre of cold saturated solution of tin crystals weighs 1827 grammes and contains 1333 grammes of SnCl2 . The same oxychioride is produced when the moist crystals, or their solution, are exposed to the air . Hence all tin crystals as kept in the laboratory give with water a turbid solution, which contains stannic in addition to stannous chloride .

The See also:

• COMPLETE

complete conversion of stannous into stannic chloride may be effected by a See also:

• GREAT

great many reagents—for instance, by See also:

• CHLORINE (symbol Cl, atomic weight 35`46 (0=16)

chlorine (See also:

• BROMINE (symbol Br, atomic weight 79-96)

bromine, See also:

• IODINE (symbol I, atomic weight '26.92)

iodine) readily; by mercuric chloride in the heat, with precipitation of See also:

• CALOMEL

calomel or metallic mercury; by ferric chloride in the heat, with formation of ferrous chloride; by arsenious chloride in strongly hydrochloric solutions, with precipitation of chocolate-See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown metallic arsenic . All these reactions are available as tests for " stannosum " or the respective agents . In opposition to stannous chloride, even sulphurous acid (solution) behaves as an oxidizing See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent . If the two reagents are mixed a precipitate of yellow stannicsulphide is produced . A See also:

• STRIP

strip of metallic zinc when placed in a solution of stannous chloride precipitates the tin in crystals and takes its See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in the solution . Stannous chloride is largely used in the laboratory as a reducing agent, in dyeing as a mordant . Stannic Chloride, SnCl4, named by Andreas Libavius in 16os Spiritus argenti viva sublimate from its preparation by distilling tin or its See also:

• AMALGAM

amalgam with corrosive sublimate, and afterwards termed Spiritus fumans Libavii, is obtained by passing dry chlorine over granulated tin contained in a See also:

• RETORT (Lat. retorquere, to twist or turn back)

retort; the tetrachloride distils over as a heavy liquid, from which the excess of chlorine is easily removed by shaking with a small quantity of tin filings and re-distilling . It is a colourless fuming liquid of specific gravity 2.269 at o°; it freezes at -33° C., and boils at 113.9° . The chloride unites energetically with water to form crystalline hydrates (e.g . SnCl4.3H5O), easily soluble in water . With one-third its weight of water it forms the so-called "See also:

• BUTTER (Lat. butyrum, Gr. 0obrvpov, apparently connected with $ous, cow, and rvpbs, cheese, but, according to the New English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin)

butter of tin." It combines readily with alkaline and other chlorides to form See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double salts, e.g . M2SnCls, analogous to the chloroplatinates; the salt (NH4)2SnC16 is known industrially as " See also:

• PINK

pink salt " on account of its use as a mordant to produce a pink colour .

The oxymuriate of tin used by dyers is SnCl4•5H20 . The See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain chloride solution is similarly used . It is usually prepared by dissolving the metal in aqua regia . Stannous Fluoride, SnF2, is obtained as small, white See also:

• MONOCLINIC

monoclinic tables by evaporating a solution of stannous oxide in hydrofluoric acid in a vacuum . Stannic Fluoride, SnF4, is obtained in solution by dissolving hydrated stannic oxide in hydrofluoric acid; it forms a characteristic series of salts, the stannofluorides, M2SnF6, isomorphous with the silico-, titano-, germano- and zirconofluorides . Stannous bromide, SnBr2, is a See also:

• LIGHT

light yellow substance formed from tin and hydrobromic acid . Stannic bromide, SnBr4, is a white crystalline mass, melting at 33° and boiling at 201 °, obtained by the See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of tin and bromine, preferably in carbon bisulphide solution . Stannous iodide, SnI2, forms yellow red needles, and is obtained from potassium iodide and stannous chloride . Stannic iodide, Snl4, forms red octahedra and is prepared similarly to stannic bromide . Both iodides combine with See also:

• AMMONIA (NH3)

ammonia . Stannous sulphide, SnS, is obtained as a lead-grey mass by heating tin with sulphur, and as a brown precipitate by adding sulphuretted See also:

• HYDROGEN [symbol H, atomic weight x-oo8 (0=16)]

hydrogen to a stannous solution ; this is soluble in ammonium poly-sulphide, and dries to a black powder . Stannic sulphide, SnS2, is obtained by heating a mixture of tin (or, better, tin amalgam), sulphur and sal-ammoniac in proper proportions in the beautiful form of aurum musivum (See also:

• MOSAIC (corresponding to Lat. opus musivum, from Gr. µovoeiov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the word is only found in the sense of mosaic in late Greek, which generally uses k oXI yrlµa)

mosaic gold)—a solid consisting of See also:

• GOLDEN

golden yellow, metallic lustrous scales, and used chiefly as a yellow "bronze " for See also:

• PLASTER

plaster-of-See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris statuettes, &c .

The yellow precipitate of stannic sulphide obtained by adding sulphuretted hydrogen to a stannic solution readily dissolves in solutions of the alkaline sulphides to form thiostannates of the See also:

• FORMULA
• FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c., especially used of rules of judicial procedure)

formula M2SnS2; the free acid, H2SnSs, may be obtained as an almost black powder by drying the yellow' precipitate formed when hydrochloric acid is added to a solution of a thiostannate . See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

Analysis.—Tin compounds when heated on charcoal with sodium carbonate or potassium cyanide in the reducing See also:

• BLOWPIPE

blowpipe See also:

• FLAME (Lat. flamma; the root flag- appears in flagrare, to burn, blaze, and Gr. d, XEryew)

flame yield the metal and a scanty ring of white SnO2 . Stannous salt solutions yield a brown precipitate of SnS with sulphuretted hydrogen, which is insoluble in cold dilute acids and in real sulphide of ammonium, (NH4)2S; but the yellow, or the colourless reagent on addition of sulphur, dissolves the precipitate as SnS2 salt . The solution on acidification yields a yellow precipitate of this sulphide . Stannic salt solutions give a yellow precipitate of SnS2 with sulphuretted hydrogen, which is insoluble in cold dilute acids but readily soluble in sulphide of ammonium, and is re-precipitated therefrom as SnS2 on acidification . Only stannous salts (not stannic) give a precipitate of calomel in mercuric chloride solution . A mixture of stannous and stannic chloride, when, added to a sufficient quantity of solution of chloride of gold, gives an intensely See also:

• PURPLE

purple precipitate of gold purple (purple of See also:

• CASSIUS
• CASSIUS, AVIDIUS (d. A.D. 175)
• CASSIUS, GAIUS

Cassius) . The test is very delicate, although the colour is not in all cases a pure purple . Tin is generally quantitatively estimated as the dioxide . The solutions are oxidized, precipitated with ammonia, the precipitate dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and re-thrown down by boiling with sodium sulphate . The precipitate is filtered, washed, dried and ignited .