See also:

• TRACTION (Lat. trahere, to draw)

TRACTION (See also:

• LAT

Lat. trahere, to draw)  , the See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of See also:

• DRAWING

drawing or hauling . As used in this See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article the See also:

• TERM

term refers to the methods of employing See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal and See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power for transporting persons or things from See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to place in wheeled vehicles . Animal See also:

• TRACTION (Lat. trahere, to draw)

Traction.—The See also:

• OLDEST

oldest See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive power is that of animals, those most commonly employed for See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught purposes on See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary roads being horses, mules, donkeys and oxen . On the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs are often harnessed to See also:

• LIGHT

light carts or barrows, but in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England their use in this way was prohibited by the See also:

• CRUELTY (through the O. Fr. crualte, mod. cruaute, from the Lat. crudelitas)

Cruelty to Animals Act of 1854 . Camels and elephants are only rarely used as draught animals in See also:

• SPECIAL

special circumstances . When men and animals carry burdens, or draw or propel loads in certain vehicles, it is difficult, and sometimes impossible, to determine the See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty performed in See also:

• FOOT

foot-pounds of See also:

• WORK

work, because of the uncertainty of the amount in pounds of the resistance overcome . In this See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case, for the purpose of comparing performances of the same See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind with each other, a unit is employed called a foot-See also:

• POUND
• POUND (2)—(a)

pound of See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal transport, meaning the conveying of a load of ' x lb x ft. horizontally . The following table, given by W . J . Macquorn See also:

• RANKINE, WILLIAM JOHN MACQUORN (182o-1872)

Rankine, gives some examples of the daily duty of men and horses in See also:

• UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF
• UNITS, PHYSICAL

units of horizontal transport, L denoting the load in lb, V the velocity in feet per second, and T the number of seconds per See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day of working: L . V . 3G oo .

LV . LVT . lb . Feet See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

Hours lb. See also:

• CON

con- tai, conveyed per per veyed it . second. day . 1 ft . See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

MAN Walking unloaded, transport of own 5.0 10 700 23,200,000 See also:

• WEIGHT

weight 5 140 6.o 10 840 30,240,600 Do. do . . . 140 WheelinFloadLintwo-wheeled See also:

• BARROW
• BARROW (from A.S. beorh, a mount or hillock)
• BARROW, ISAAC (1630-1677)
• BARROW, SIR JOHN (1764-1848)

barrow,} 224 1.6 10 373 13428,o0e returning empty; V = 4 velocity . 135 I6 10 225 8,roo,000 Do. one-wheeled barrow, do . . . Travelling with See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden 90 2.5 7 225 5,670,000 Conveying burden, returning unloaded 140 1.6 6 233 5,032,800 `` 252 Carrying burden for 30 seconds only { , z6 11.7 — 1474 2 - -f — 23.1 — — — See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

HORSE 1500 3'6 10 5400 194,400,000 , Walking with See also:

• CART (A.S. crcet, Gaelic cairt; connected with " car ")

cart always loaded , .

Trotting do. do . . . 750 7'2 4I 5400 87,480,000 Walking with cart, going loaded, re-'l 1500 2.0 10 3000 108,000,000 turning empty; V = } mean velocity 270 3.6 r0 972 34,992,000 Carrying burden, walking . . . . Do. trotting . . . . 18o 7.2 7 1296 32,659,200 For See also:

• TRAMWAY

tramway service, horse, or occasionally See also:

• MULE (Lat. mulus)

mule, traction was formerly employed almost universally, but on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of limited See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed and high cost it has been generally abandoned, except in a few localities, where the smallness of the See also:

• LINE

line, See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low value of livestock, labour and feed, and See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long headway intervals, make it still profitable . The tractive force required on a straight and level tramway is found to vary from 'h to of the load, according to the See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the rails . On a tramway having grooved• rails in See also:

• AVERAGE

average condition it is about 1h . The resistance is thus, at the best, nearly See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double that on a railway, and sometimes as much as on a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good paved road . This is due to the See also:

• FRICTION (from Lat. fricare, to rub)

friction of the flange of the See also:

• WHEEL (0. Eng. hweol, hweohl, &c., cognate with Icel. hjol, Dan. hiul, the Indo-European root is seen in Sanskrit chakra, Gr. r in Aos, circle, whence " cycle ")
• WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE

wheel in the grooved See also:

• RAIL

rail, and to the fact that the latter is always more or less clogged with dirt . The clearance between the flange and the groove is necessarily on the ground as the See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of the See also:

• ENGINE
• ENGINE (Lat. ingenium)

engine proceeds, and the engine small, as the former must have sufficient strength, and the latter must be narrow .

The least inaccuracy of See also:

• GAUGE, or GAGE (Med. Lat. gauja, jaugia, Fr. jauge, perhaps connected with Fr. jale, a bowl, galon, gallon)

gauge, there-fore, causes extra friction, which is greatly increased on curves . By removing the flanges from two of the four wheels of the tramway See also:

• CAR (Late Lat. carra)

car H . E . Tresca (1814–1885) found that the resistance was reduced from See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice- to t of the load . The resistance due to gravity is of course not lessened on a tramway; and if yh of the load be the tractive force required on the level, twice as much, -510- of the load, will be required on a gradient of i in too and three times as much on a gradient of r in 5o . To start a tramcar, four or five times as See also:

• GREAT

great a pull is required as will keep it in See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion afterwards, and the See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant starting after stoppages, especially on inclines, is destructive to horses . Horses employed on tramways are worked only a few hours a day, a day's work being a See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey of to or 12 m., and much less on steep gradients . In See also:

• LONDON

London a tramcar horse bought at the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of five years had to be sold at a low See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price after about four years' work . On the See also:

• EDINBURGH

Edinburgh tramways, in consequence of steep gradients, the horses lasted a less See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, and had to be constantly shifted from steep to easier gradients . The cost of traction by horses is generally 6d. or 7d. per mile for two horses, and more when the gradients are steep (see also TRAMWAY) . See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

Steam Traction.—The most universally used form of motive power is the steam engine, which has been constructed to work on ordinary roads, on tramways and on See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways . The road or traction engine comprises a See also:

• BOILER

boiler mounted on wheels, and a steam engine usually placed on See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the boiler .

The front See also:

• AXLE (in Mid. Eng. axel-tre, from O. Norweg. oxull-tre, cognate with the O. Eng. exe or eaxe, and connected with Sansk. dksha, Gr. a wv, and Lat. axis)

axle is pivoted so that it may be moved by means of a steering wheel geared to it, and the See also:

• REAR

rear wheels are geared to the engine . The wheel rims are made wide to prevent them from sinking in loose See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth or muddy roads . The whole arrangement is similar to the ordinary wheeled portable boiler and engine with the addition of the steering wheel and a See also:

• GEAR (connected with " garb," properly elegance, fashion, especially of dress, and with " gar," to cause to do, only found in Scottish and northern dialects; the root of the word is seen in the Old Tent. garwjan, to make ready)

gear connexion from the engine to the rear wheels . The tractive power of these engines is high, but their speed low—usually 4 to 6 m. per See also:

• HOUR

hour . A See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar form of road motor is made by equipping the axles of a traction engine with the so-called " Pedrail " invented by B . J . Diplock . This is an arrangement whereby circular pads or " feet," fastened around the periphery of a wheel, come successively in contact with the ground, the motion approximating to a smooth, even stepping or walking along . Fourteen of these feet are placed around a wheel, and each is attached at the end of a spoke, See also:

• FREE

free to slide radially toward and from the hub of the wheel . Each spoke has fastened to it a helical See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring which tends to draw it inwards . On each spoke there is also a See also:

• ROLLER

roller, which bears against a See also:

• CAM (CAO), DIOGO (fl. 1480-1486)

cam-shaped piece placed inside the periphery of the wheel . The engine is suspended by springs from the cam and is supported by it .

The See also:

• LOWER

lower edge of the cam is practically straight and horizontal, the length of this straight portion being great enough to subtend an See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle equal to the spacing of three spokes, or about 7o° . By this means three of the feet are always resting on the roadway and support the engine, which really slides along on the rollers that are at any instant underneath the fiat portion of the cam . The feet take successive positions itself rolls along on the rail portion of the See also:

• EARN

earn which rests on the rollers beneath it . See also:

• BALL (in Mid. Eng. bal; the word is probably cognate with " bale," Teutonic in origin, cf. also Lat. falls, and Gr. 7raXXa)
• BALL, JOHN (1585-1640)
• BALL, JOHN (1818-1889)
• BALL, JOHN (d. 1381)
• BALL, SIR ALEXANDER JOHN, BART
• BALL, THOMAS (1819- )

Ball and socket See also:

• JOINTS

joints are used to connect the feet to the spokes so that they may See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest on any conformation they may encounter . This See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine has shown a remarkable ability to pass over obstacles and rough roads, and even to climb roadless hills . It gives a maximum of See also:

• ADHESION (from Lat. adhaerere, to adhere)

adhesion of the drivers, and it is claimed that it will pass over rough roads with the See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure of less See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy than will an ordinary wheeled traction engine . Its speed is necessarily low—about 4 M. per hour . The Hornsby " See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

Chain Track Tractor" (fig . 2), patented by Mr See also:

• DAVID
• DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably beloved 1)
• DAVID, FELICIEN (1810—1876)
• DAVID, GERARD [GHEERAERT DAVIT], (?=1523)
• DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789–1856)
• DAVID, ST (Dewi, Sant)

David See also:

• ROBERTS, DAVID (1796-1864)
• ROBERTS, FREDERICK SLEIGH ROBERTS, EARL

Roberts, is provided with two endless chains, one on each See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, which constitute the track on which the machine travels . Each chain is carried on two sprocket wheels, placed at the extreme ends of the See also:

• FRAME

frame, and is formed of a number of links (fig . 3) so connected that it is free to See also:

• BEND

bend in one direction, as required to pass See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the sprocket wheels, but is locked into a rigid See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar by pressure acting in the opposite direction . On their See also:

• OUTER

outer surfaces these links See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear pads or feet, while their inner surfaces compose a track upon which See also:

• ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. role, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota, wheel)
• ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846– )

roll the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle or weight-bearing wheels .

Power applied to one of the sprocket wheels exerts a pull on the chain, but this being held fast by the weight of the engine pressing the feet to the ground, the effect is to roll the engine along the track, and as this happens the feet at the rear end are one by one lifted off the ground, carried round the sprocket wheels, and relaid at the front of the machine . This construction not only renders the whole weight available for adhesion, but also provides a long supporting See also:

• BASE

base and thus enables the machine to pass over soft ground, loose See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand, morasses, &c., in which an ordinary traction engine would certainly sink . Steering is effected by retarding or stopping the motion of the sprocket wheels on the side towards which it is desired to turn . For tramway work steam is scarcely used at all now, though small locomotives—usually having their engines geared to the See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving- wheels, instead of the connecting-rods being coupled See also:

• DIRECT

direct to them—have been used in the past for this work . They were compactly designed and equipped with mufflers to deaden the See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound of the exhaust, with other devices to decrease See also:

• NOISE (a word of doubtful origin; O. Fr. nogse or nose; Prov. nausa, which points to Lat. nausea, sickness, as the origin; others take Lat. noxia, harm, as the source)

noise and See also:

• SMOKE (from O. Eng. smeocan, to smoke, reek, cf. Dutch meek, Ger. Schmauch, probably allied to Gr. vol9caiv)

smoke . In some instances, the engine and boiler were placed in the forward end of a car,' a See also:

• PARTITION

partition separating them from the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• BODY

body of the car in which the passengers were carried . For description of steam railway engines see RAILWAYS: Loco-motive Power, and STEAM ENGINE . Fireless Engines.—Fireless engines were first tried in New See also:

• ORLEANS
• ORLEANS, CHARLES, DUKE OF (1391-1465)
• ORLEANS, DUKES OF
• ORLEANS, FERDINAND PHILIP LOUIS CHARLES HENRY, DUKE OF (1810-1842)
• ORLEANS, HENRI, PRINCE
• ORLEANS, HENRIETTA, DUCHESS
• ORLEANS, JEAN BAPTISTE GASTON, DUKE
• ORLEANS, LOUIS
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE JOSEPH
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ROBERT, DUKE
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE, DUKE OF (1725–1785)
• ORLEANS, LOUIS, DUKE OF (1372–1407)
• ORLEANS, PHILIP I
• ORLEANS, PHILIP II

Orleans, and were in successful use on tramways in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and, (From The Scientific See also:

• AMERICAN

American.) Position of the parts in overcoming Position of the parts on a level obstacles. road . FIG . 1.—Principle of the Pedrail's operation . See also:

• BATAVIA

Batavia, See also:

• JAVA

Java, for some years . The motive power was obtained from See also:

• WATER

water heated under pressure to a very high temperature in stationary boilers and carried in a See also:

• RESERVOIR

reservoir on the engine, where it gave off steam as the pressure and temperature were reduced .

Two tons of water heated to give a steam-pressure of 250 lb to the square See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch served for a run of 8 or 10 m., more than of the water and a pressure of 20 to 25 ib above the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere being See also:

• LEFT

left on returning to the boiler station . Large boiler-power was required to reheat the engine reservoirs quickly, and this could be afforded for only a few engines; but, when worked on a sufficient See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale, the fireless engines were claimed to be economical, the See also:

• ECONOMY

economy resulting from the See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation of the steam in large stationary boilers . Compressed See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

Air.—Compressed air as a motive power offers the See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of having neither steam nor the products of See also:

• COMBUSTION (from the Lat. comburere, to burn up)

combustion to be got rid of . In W . D . See also:

• SCOTT, ALEXANDER (fl. 1550)
• SCOTT, DAVID (18o6-1849)
• SCOTT, MICHAEL (1789-1835)
• SCOTT, ROBERT (1811-1887)
• SCOTT, SIR GEORGE GILBERT (1811-1878)
• SCOTT, SIR WALTER, BART
• SCOTT, WILLIAM BELL (1811-1890)
• SCOTT, WINFIELD (1786-1866)

Scott Moncrieff's engine, which was tried on the Vale of See also:

• CLYDE (Welsh, Clwyd, " far heard," " strong," the Glotta of Tacitus)
• CLYDE, COLIN CAMPBELL, BARON (1792-1863)

Clyde tramways in 1876, air was compressed to 310 lb per sq. in., and See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded in the cylinders from a See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform working pressure to that of the atmosphere . There is a considerable loss of See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat during the expansion of the air which is attended with a serious loss of pressure, and in L . Mekarski's See also:

• SYSTEM

system, which was in use for the propulsion of tramcars at See also:

• NANTES
• NANTES, EDICT OF

Nantes for a number of years, the loss of pressure was considerably lessened by See also:

• HEATING

heating the air during expansion . The air, at a pressure of 426 lb per sq. in., was stored in cylindrical reservoirs beneath the car, and before use was passed through a See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel three-quarters full of water heated to 300° F., by which it was heated and mixed with steam . The heat of the latter was absorbed by the air during its expansion, first to a working pressure which could be regulated by the See also:

• DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES (1846– )

driver, and then to atmospheric pressure in the cylinders . At Nantes the average cost for three years of propelling a car holding See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-four persons was about 6d. per mile . Owing to the heat losses in compressing the air, and other considerable losses incident to its use, the compressed-air systems of traction have been found inefficient and have nearly all been replaced by the more flexible and efficient electric motqr .

See also:

• CABLE (from Late Lat. capulum, a halter, from capere, to take hold of)
• CABLE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1844– )

Cable Traction.—Moving See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel cables, propelled by steam engines, have been used for traction . The See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

street railway cars See also:

• RUNNING

running from New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York to See also:

• BROOKLYN

Brooklyn, over the Brooklyn See also:

• BRIDGE

Bridge, were for many years propelled by a cable to or from which the cars could be attached or detached at will, and, though electric See also:

• MOTORS, ELECTRIC

motors are now used on this line, the cables are still kept in place as a reserve in case of breakdown of the See also:

• ELECTRICAL
• ELECTRICAL (or ELECTROSTATIC) MACHINE

electrical system, and are used whenever an See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident to the electrical plant occurs . Before the See also:

• ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

advent of electric traction, the tramways using cable propulsion were numerous and of great See also:

• SIZE

size, as at See also:

• SAN

San Francisco, See also:

• CHICAGO
• CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF

Chicago, See also:

• WASHINGTON
• WASHINGTON (or WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE)
• WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (c. 1859– )
• WASHINGTON, BUSHROD (1762-1829)
• WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732-1799)

Washington, See also:

• BALTIMORE
• BALTIMORE, GEORGE CALVERT, 1ST BARON (C. 1580—1632)

Baltimore, See also:

• PHILADELPHIA

Philadelphia and New York in See also:

• AMERICA

America, at See also:

• HIGHGATE

Highgate See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill (London) and Edinburgh in the See also:

• UNITED

United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom, and at See also:

• MELBOURNE
• MELBOURNE, WILLIAM LAMB, 2ND VISCOUNT (1779-1848)

Melbourne in See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia . The See also:

• GLASGOW

Glasgow Subway is so equipped . In the usual form, the motive power is transmitted from a station- ary engine by a rope of steel See also:

• WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G. wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from the root wi, to twist, bind)

wire running always in one direction, up one track and down the other, in a See also:

• TUBE (Lat. tuba)

tube midway between the rails, on pulleys (fig . 4) which are arranged so as to suit curves and changes of gradient as well as straight and level lines . Over the rope is a slots in . wide, in which travels a See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm of steel connecting the dummy car with the gripper (fig . 5) which grasps the cable . The flat arm is in three pieces, the two outer ones constituting a frame which carries the lower 4' each end of it, over which the cable runs when of Cable Road. the gripper is not in See also:

• ACTION

action . The upper See also:

• JAW (Mid. Eng. jawe, jowe and geowe, O. Eng. cheowan, connected with " chaw " and " chew," and in form with " jowl ")

jaw is carried by the middle piece which slides within the outer frame, and can be depressed by a See also:

• LEVER (through O. Fr. leveour, levere, mod. levier, from Lat. levare, to lift, raise)
• LEVER, CHARLES JAMES (1806-1872)

lever or See also:

• SCREW (O.E. scrue, from O. Fr. escroue, mod. ecrou; ultimate origin uncertain; the word, or a similar one, appears in Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Schraube, Dan. skrue, but Skeat, following Diaz, finds the origin in Lat. scrobs, a ditch, hole, particularl

screw, pressing the cable first on the rollers and then on the lower jaw until it is firmly held . The speed of the cable, which is generally 8 to to m. an hour, is thus imparted to the car padually and without jerk .

The arrangements for passing the pulleys, for changing the dummy and cars from one line to the other at the end of the road, for keeping the cable uniformly taut, and for crossings and junctions with other lines, are of considerable ingenuity . When the cars are See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast off from the cable they must be stopped by See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand brakes which, on steep gradients especially, must be of great power . Gasolene Engine Traction.—Explosive engines using gasolene (petrol) have been used for motive power, and this is the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal form employed - in the road motor car . Certain railways in England and America have experimented with cars having a gasolene engine placed in one end to propel the car, the greater See also:

• PART

part of which is left clear for the See also:

• ACCOMMODATION (Lat. accommodare, to make fit, from ad, to, cum, with, and modus, measure)

accommodation of passengers . These cars are intended for See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short runs and may in effect be classed as belonging to ex-tended tramway service . They have yielded encouraging results . Electric Traction.—Electric traction, as treated here, will refer to the operation of vehicles for the transportation of passengers and goods upon tracks, as distinguished from what are known as telpherage systems on the one hand (see See also:

• CONVEYORS

CONVEYORS), and automobiles intended to run on See also:

• COMMON

common roads on the other (see MOTOR VEHICLES) . Possibly the first elec- tric motor was that made FIG . 5.—Gripper. by the See also:

• ABBE (Serbo-Croatian Rai))

Abbe Salvatore dal See also:

• NEGRO (from Lat. eager, black)

Negro in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy in 183o . As See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early as 1835, See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas See also:

• DAVENPORT
• DAVENPORT, EDWARD LOOMIS (1816-1877)
• DAVENPORT, ROBERT (fl. 1623—1639)

Davenport, a blacksmith of See also:

• BRANDON

Brandon, See also:

• VERMONT

Vermont, U.S.A., constructed ' and exhibited an automobile electric car, operated by batteries carried upon it . See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert See also:

• DAVIDSON, ANDREW BRUCE (1831–1902)
• DAVIDSON, JOHN (1857–1909)
• DAVIDSON, RANDALL THOMAS (1848– )
• DAVIDSON, SAMUEL (1807-1898)
• DAVIDSON, THOMAS (1817-1885)

Davidson, of See also:

• ABERDEEN
• ABERDEEN, GEORGE GORDON, 1ST EARL O (1637-1720)
• ABERDEEN, GEORGE HAMILTON GORDON, 4TH EARL

Aberdeen, See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, began experimenting about 1838 with the electric motor as a means of traction, and constructed a very powerful engine, weighing five tons and carrying a See also:

• BATTERY (Fr. batterie, from battles, to beat)

battery of See also:

• FORTY

forty cells . This See also:

• LOCOMOTIVE

locomotive made several successful trips on Scottish railways, but was finally, wrecked by jealous employes of the railway while it was lying in the car sheds at See also:

• PERTH
• PERTH, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Perth .

In 184o a See also:

• PRO

pro-visional patent was granted in England to See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry Pinkus, which described a method of supplying electric energy to a moving See also:

• TRAIN (M. Eng. trayn or trayne, derived through Fr. from Late Lat. trahinare, to drag, draw, Lat. trahere, cf. trail, trace, ultimately from the same source)

train from fixed conductors . A little later, in 1845, See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French and See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian See also:

• PATENTS

patents granted to See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

Major See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander Bessolo described practically what is to-day the third-rail system . In 1847 See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor See also:

• MOSES (Gr. Mwvo c, Mcoo-i3s)
• MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF

Moses G . See also:

• FARMER, RICHARD (1735–1787)

Farmer, of See also:

• MAINE
• MAINE, ANNE LOUISE BENEDICTE DE BOURBON
• MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822–1888)

Maine, U.S.A., built a See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model locomotive operated by See also:

• ELECTRICITY

electricity, which he exhibited at See also:

• DOVER
• DOVER, GEORGE JAMES WELBORE
• DOVER, HENRY JERMYN, EARL OF (c. 1636-1708)
• DOVER, ROBERT (1575-1641)

Dover, New See also:

• HAMPSHIRE (or COUNTY OF SOUTHAMPTON, abbreviated HANTS)

Hampshire, and later at other places in New England . Shortly afterwards Professor C . G . See also:

• PAGE
• PAGE, THOMAS NELSON (1853- )
• PAGE, WILLIAM (1811-1885)

Page, of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, constructed an electric railway motor, which made a trip on the 29th of See also:

• APRIL

April 1851, from Washington, D.C., to Bladensburg, See also:

• MARYLAND

Maryland, over the Baltimore & See also:

• OHIO

Ohio railway . This machine carried See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo See also:

• GROVE (O.E. graf, cf. O.E. gr(efa, brushwood, later" greave "; the word does not appear in any other Teutonic language, and the New English Dictionary finds no Indo-European root to which it can be referred; Skeat considers it connected with " grave," to
• GROVE, SIR GEORGE (182o-1900)
• GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT (1811-1896)

Grove's cells, and attained speeds as high as 19 M. an hour . Perhaps the beginning of See also:

• MODERN

modern electric traction may be said to date from 1879, when the See also:

• FIRM

firm of See also:

• SIEMENS, ERNST WERNER VON (1816-1892)
• SIEMENS, SIR WILLIAM [KARL WILHELM] (1823-1883)

Siemens & Halske put in operation the first electric railway at the See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

Industrial Exposition in See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin . In America it was not until a See also:

• YEAR

year later that real work began and T . A . See also:

• EDISON, THOMAS ALVA (1847– )

Edison built an experimental line near his laboratory in Menlo See also:

• PARK (Fr. part; Ital. parco; Sp. Marque; O.Eng. pearroc; connected with Ger. pferch, fold, and pfarrei, district, translating med. Lat. parochia, parish)
• PARK, EDWARDS AMASA (1808–1900)
• PARK, MUNGO (1771-1806?)

Park, New See also:

• JERSEY
• JERSEY, EARLS OF

Jersey .

In 188o a locomotive driven by accumulators was constructed and operated at a See also:

• LINEN

linen-See also:

• BLEACHING

bleaching See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment at Breuil-en-Auge, in France; and in 1881 a similar car was worked upon the See also:

• VINCENNES

Vincennes tramway line . On the 12th of May 1881 the first commercial electric railway for See also:

• REGULAR

regular service was opened for operations at Lichterfelde, in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany . The first really noteworthy road was that constructed in 1883 at the steam trains operated on private rights of way . The fact that See also:

• GIANT (O.E. geant, through Fr. giant, O.Fr. gaiant, jaiant, jeant, med. pop. Lat. gagante—cf. Ital. gigante—by assimilation from gigantem, ace. of Lat. gigas, Gr. yiyas)

Giant's See also:

• CAUSEWAY

Causeway at See also:

• PORTRUSH

Portrush, in the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland . This they run more frequently and can take up passengers anywhere along the line gives them an advantage, and within limited distances they have taken a large proportion of suburban See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic from steam railways . For long-distance service, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to compete with steam a speed much greater than that used on ordinary tram-lines must be adopted, while owing to the time spent on the car more See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention must be paid to the comfort of the passenger . Speed and comfort being equal, the great advantage of electricity is that, when it is used, the most economical way of transporting a given number of passengers between two points is in a larger number of small trains; with steam the converse is true . A frequent service is a great attraction to passengers . For See also:

• FREIGHT, (pronounced like " weight "; derived from the Dutch vracht or vrecht, in Fr. fret, the Eng. " fraught " being the same word, and formerly used for the same thing, but now only as an adjective= " laden ")

freight service, especially on railways having heavy grades, electricity also possesses many advantages, due principally to the peculiarity of the electric locomotive, which admits of its maintaining its tractive effort or so-called " draw-bar pull " when running at relatively high speeds . This steam loco-motives cannot do . Thus a steam locomotive weighing too tons may exert a draw-bar pull of say 45,000 lb at a speed of 6 m. per hour, while at 15 M. per hour the continuous draw-bar pull will not exceed about 25,000 lb . On the other hand, an electric locomotive weighing 75 tons and having a tractive effort of 34,000 lb at 6 m. per hour will exert a pull of about 27,000 lb at 25 M. per hour .

From this it is clear that an electric locomotive may pull a heavier train at a See also:

• FAIR

fair speed than can a larger steam locomotive . This admits of more rapid movement of freight trains, and thus decreases the hauling cost . Another advantage the electric system has for freight service is the ability to couple several light locomotives in tandem, all under the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of one driver, and thus pull at a high speed larger trains than may now be See also:

• DRAWN

drawn by steam locomotives of weights commercially admissible . Also, these lighter motors distribute the weight over the track instead of having it concentrated on a few wheels, and the heavy pounding due to the latter condition is obviated and the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of the track and See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

bridges reduced . Other savings arise from diminished See also:

• FUEL (O. Fr. feuaile, popular Lat. focalia, from focus, hearth, fire)

fuel See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption, elimination of water and See also:

• COAL

coal stations with their attendants, and greatly reduced See also:

• REPAIRS (from Lat. reparare, to make ready again)

repairs on motive power . The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief disadvantage is the stoppage of all trains on a See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section if the source of current See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply should fail . With proper precautions in See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design and construction this should be a remote possibility, and since electric rail haulage, in any form attempted up to the See also:

• PRESENT

present, has shown a reduced cost for a given service as compared with steam traction, it is not improbable that the future will See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness great activity in the See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change from steam to electricity for long-distance railway work . Systems of electric traction may be divided broadly into two classes, the one employing continuous, the other alternating currents to drive the motors . Both of these classes may be further divided with reference to the conducting system employed between the source of current and the motor . The system may also be divided according to operative units into three classes—the single car, the train pulled by one or more directly controlled locomotives or motor cars, and the train operated by two or more motor cars under a common secondary control . This last is called the " multiple unit system." line was 6 m. long, and the power was obtained from See also:

• TURBINE (Lat. turbo, a whirlwind, a whirling motion ,or object, a top)

turbine wheels actuated by a cascade on the See also:

• RIVER

river See also:

• RUSH
• RUSH, BENJAMIN (1745–1813)
• RUSH, RICHARD (1780–1859)

Rush . The method of supply was, curiously enough, the third rail .

In 1883 invention in electric railways seems to have taken a decided advance in America . It was in this year that the conflicting interests of Edison and S . D . See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

Field were consolidated; and at the same time C . J. See also:

• VAN

van Depoele and See also:

• LEO
• LEO (THE LION)
• LEO, BROTHER (d. c. 1270)
• LEO, HEINRICH (1799-1878)
• LEO, JOHANNES (c. 1494-1552)
• LEO, LEONARDO (1694–1744)

Leo Daft began their experimental work, which later resulted in numerous commercial railways . Next year E . H . See also:

• BENTLEY, RICHARD (1662-1742)
• BENTLEY, RICHARD (1794-1871)

Bentley and See also:

• WALTER, HUBERT (d. 1205)
• WALTER, JOHN (1738/9-1812)

Walter See also:

• KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873)
• KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845– )
• KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843–1908)

Knight opened to the public in See also:

• CLEVELAND
• CLEVELAND (or CLEIVELAND), JOHN (1613—1658)
• CLEVELAND, BARBARA VILLIERS, DUCHESS OF (1641-1709)
• CLEVELAND, STEPHEN GROVER (1837-1908)

Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A., a railway operated by an open-slot conduit, and for the first time worked in competition with horse traction on regular street railway lines . For the next two years much experimental work was done, but it may be said with fairness that the first of the thoroughly modern systems, in which a large railway was equipped and operated under service conditions by electricity, was the line built in See also:

• RICHMOND
• RICHMOND, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• RICHMOND, LEGH (1772-1827)
• RICHMOND, SIR WILLIAM BLAKE (1842– )

Richmond, See also:

• VIRGINIA
• VIRGINIA, or VERGINIA
• VIRGINIA, UNIVERSITY OF

Virginia, U.S.A., by See also:

• FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791)

Frank J . Sprague in 1887 . This railway had 13 m. of track, and started with an equipment of forty cars . It has been in continuous and successful commercial operation ever since .

The See also:

• ORIGINAL

original Richmond system was in all its essential particulars the overhead trolley system now in use . Many improvements have been made in the construction of the motors, the controllers, the trolleys and the various details of car equipment and overhead construction, but the broad principles have not been departed from . The success of the Richmond line called the attention of tramway managers to the advantages of electricity as a motive power, and its substitution for other systems progressed with astonishing rapidity . The See also:

• PIONEER

pioneer application of electricity to heavy electric traction was that of the Baltimore & Ohio railway See also:

• TUNNEL (Fr. tonne!, later tonneau, a diminutive from Low Lat. tonna, tunna, a tun, cask)

tunnel at Baltimore, Md., U.S.A., and the system was put into operation in 1895 . This tunnel is about 12 m. in length and passes under the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of Baltimore . Its route made the expense of See also:

• VENTILATION (Lat. ventilare, from ventus, wind)

ventilation prohibitive, and the smoke and gases from the locomotives made the use of the tunnel impossible without ventilation . The management therefore decided to See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt the use of electric locomotives to haul the. trains through, despite the fact that there existed no See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

prior applications of heavy electric motors for even far lighter servica than that demanded by the conditions, namely, the propulsion of trains of over 2000 tons up a grade of 42 ft. to the mile . The See also:

• ENGINEERING

engineering work and designing of the locomotives were undertaken by Dr See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis See also:

• DUNCAN
• DUNCAN, ADAM DUNCAN, 1ST VISCOUNT (1731-1804)
• DUNCAN, PETER MARTIN (1824-1891)
• DUNCAN, THOMAS (1807—1845)

Duncan . The locomotives weigh 96 tons and have worked successfully since they were first put into See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission . " The electric service has been extended 6 m. from the mouth of the tunnel, making a See also:

• TOTAL

total haul of nearly 8 m. for these locomotives . In 1907 many heavy electric locomotives using continuous current were constructed for the New York Central & See also:

• HUDSON
• HUDSON, GEORGE (180o-1871)
• HUDSON, HENRY
• HUDSON, JOHN (1662–1719)

Hudson River Railroad See also:

• COMPANY

Company to operate a distance of about 5 M. from the New York See also:

• TERMINUS

terminus, and others for practically the same service, but using single-phase alternating currents, were put in for the New York, New Haven & See also:

• HARTFORD

Hartford Railroad Company . It has been fully demonstrated that electricity is See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior to its competitors—horses and moving cables—for tramway work .

It is cheaper and more flexible . The relative cost of operation varies with the See also:

• LOCAL

local conditions, but a fair average estimate would be that cable lines cost 25% more to operate than electric, and horse lines t00% more . The increased speed of the electric cars and the comfort rendered possible by larger vehicles always increase the receipts when horse traction is replaced by electric, while the latter, as compared with the cable, allows better and easier control of the car and a much greater possible speed variation . The See also:

• INSTALLATION

installation of an overhead electric line casts less than a cable system, though the expense of a conduit electric line is about the same . By the See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of the See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

urban tramway systems into the suburbs and the construction of inter-urban lines, electricity has come into competition with steam . Here the conditions are different . For ordinary suburban service, the electric cars, running through the city streets and on the highways, cannot, in speed, compete with Continuous-Current Systems.—The applications of continuous current to electric traction comprise six principal varieties, with numerous modifications and combinations . In all of them the motors are operated under a constant, or approximately constant, potential difference . The system in which cars were connected in See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series by automatic switches, in limited use in the United States in 1888 and 1889, has now disappeared, and the parallel system of connexion, in which the cars are bridged across between the two conductors of a parallel system, maintained at a substantially constant voltage, has become practically universal . The overhead conductor and track-return construction is the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard for street railway work in most of the cities overhead where electric traction is employed, though there are t onstrucsome notable exceptions . In its present development the a" . system may be said to have grown out of the work of Sprague in Richmond in 1887 .

Over the track is suspended a See also:

• BARE