See also:

• TUNISIA (Regency of Tunis)

TUNISIA (Regency of See also:

• TUNIS

Tunis)  , a See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country of See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, under the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, bounded N. by the Mediterranean, W. by See also:

• ALGERIA
• ALGERIA (Algerie)

Algeria, E. by See also:

• TRIPOLI
• TRIPOLI (Tarabulus el-Gharb, i.e. Tripoli of the West)
• TRIPOLI, or TARABULUS (anc. Tripolis)

Tripoli and S. by the See also:

• SAHARA

Sahara . See also:

• TUNISIA (Regency of Tunis)

Tunisia reaches farther north than any other See also:

• PART

part of Africa, See also:

• RAS

Ras-al-Abiadh (Cape See also:

• BLANC, (JEAN JOSEPH CHARLES) LOUIS (1811-1882)
• BLANC, MONT

Blanc)]. being in 37° 20' N . On the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south the boundary of the Tunisian Sahara is undetermined, but it may be roughly placed at 31° N . This would give, therefore, a greatest length of something like 44o m . The country lies between 11' 4o' E. and 7° 35' E . The See also:

• AVERAGE

average length is about 300 m., an i1 the average breadth 15o m.; consequently the See also:

• AREA

area may be estimated at 50,000 sq. m . (For See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map, see ALGERIA.) See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical Features.—Geographically speaking, Tunisia is merely the eastern prolongation of the Mauretanian See also:

• PROJECTION

projection of See also:

• NORTHERN

northern Africa, of that See also:

• STRIP

strip of mountainous, fertile and fairly well-watered. country north of the Sahara See also:

• DESERT

desert, which in its See also:

• FLORA

flora and its See also:

• FAUNA

fauna, and to some extent in its human See also:

• RACE

race, belongs rather to See also:

• EUROPE

Europe than to Africa . Tunisia is divided into the following four fairly distinct regions: I . On the north and north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west the Aures mountains of Algeria are prolonged into Tunisia, and constitute the mountainous region of the north, which lies between the Majerda See also:

• RIVER

river and the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, and also includes the vicinity of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of See also:

• TUNIS

Tunis and the See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula of the Dakhelat el Mawin, which terminates in Ras Addar (Cape Bon) . This first See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division is called by the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French " the Majerda Mountains." It includes within its limits the once famous See also:

• DISTRICT

district of the "Kroumirs,"2 a tribe whose occasional thefts of See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle across the frontier gave the French an excuse to invade Tunisia in 1881 . The highest point which the mountains attain in this division of Tunisia is about 4125 ft., near See also:

• AIN

Ain Draham in Kroumiria . The country, however, about See also:

• BIZERTA (properly pronounced Ben Zert; Fr. Bizerte)

Bizerta is very mountainous, though the summits do not attain a greater See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude than about 3000 ft .

The district between Bizerta and the Gulf of Tunis is a most attractive country, resembling greatly the mountainous regions of South See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales . It is well watered by streams more or less perennial . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal river, the Majerda, is formed by the junction of the See also:

• WAD

Wad Malleg and the Wad Kkallad . It and its 1 It is possible that Ras-See also:

• BEN (from Old Eng. bennan, within)

ben-Sekka, a little to the west of Cape Blanc, may be actually the most northerly point . 2 The French seem systematically unable to See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master certain sounds See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign to their own See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, or sounds which they suppose to be foreign . Thus the " w," though constantly represented in French by " nu," is continually changed by them into " v " when they transcribe foreign See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages, just as the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek x and the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German and Scottish " ch " is almost invariably rendered by the French in Algeria and Tunis as " kr." Add to this the insertion of vowel sounds where they are lacking in the Arabic and you derive from the real word Khmir the See also:

• MODERN

modern French See also:

• TERM

term of Kroumir . In like manner sebkha, a See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake, is constantly written by the French as sebkra . `ributaries rise in the Majerda and Aures mountains . Flowing their See also:

• VOLUME

volume that in several places they See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form actual ever-flowing north-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east the Majerda forms an extensive See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain in its See also:

• LOWER

lower course, See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers . Only for the intervention of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man these rivers would at all reaching the sea near the ruins of See also:

• UTICA

Utica . Vegetation is abundant, times find their way into the adjoining depressions, which they and recalls that of the more fertile districts of See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain and would maintain as lakes of See also:

• WATER

water . But for a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period past the of See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy .

On the higher mountains the flora has a very See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• FRESHWATER

freshwater streams (which predominate) have been used for See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, though the actual See also:

• SPECIES

species of See also:

• PLANTS

plants may not be the See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation to such a degree that very little of the See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious water is same. allowed to run to See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste into the lake basins; so that these latter 2 . The central See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau region, stretching between the Majerda receive only a few salt streams, which See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit on their See also:

• SURFACE

surface the valley and the mountains of Gafsa . The average See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation of this salt they contain and then evaporate . This abundant See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of country is about 2000 ft . The See also:

• CLIMATE

climate, therefore, in parts is ex- fresh' warm water maintains oases of extraordinary luxuriance in ceedingly See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold and See also:

• BLEAK, or BLICK (Alburnus lucidus)

bleak in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter, and as it is very See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind-swept a country where See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain falls very rarely . Perennial streams of the and parched in summer by the terrible qibli or " See also:

• SIROCCO

sirocco " it is description referred to are found between the Algerian frontier much less attractive in See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance than the favoured region on the and See also:

• GABES

Gabes on the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast . The See also:

• TOWN

town at Gabes itself is on the fringe northern littoral . Although it is almost always covered with some of a splendid See also:

• OASIS (Gr. &toss, the name given by Herodotus to the fertile spots in the Libyan desert: it probably represents an Egyptian word, cf. Coptic ouahe, ouih, to dwell, from which the Egyptian Arabic sod is derived)

oasis, which is maintained by the water of an ever-See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of vegetation, trees are relatively rare . A few of the higher See also:

• RUNNING

running stream emptying itself into the sea at Gabes after a course mountains have the See also:

• ALEPPO (native Haleb)

Aleppo See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine and the See also:

• JUNIPER

juniper; elsewhere only of not more than 20 M . an infrequent See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• TEREBINTH

terebinth is to be seen . In these two regions All this region See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the shats has been called the Jerid " the date See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

palm is never met with growing naturally wild . Its pre- from the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of the Arab occupation .

" Jerid " means in Arabic sence is always due to its having been planted by man at some time a " palm frond " and inferentially "a palm See also:

• GROVE (O.E. graf, cf. O.E. gr(efa, brushwood, later" greave "; the word does not appear in any other Teutonic language, and the New English Dictionary finds no Indo-European root to which it can be referred; Skeat considers it connected with " grave," to
• GROVE, SIR GEORGE (182o-1900)
• GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT (1811-1896)

grove." The Jerid. or another, and therefore it is never seen far from human habitations . The fame of this Belad-el-Jerid, or " Country of the These central uplands of Tunisia in an uncultivated See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state are covered Date Palms," was so exaggerated during the 17th and 18th centuries with alfa or See also:

• ESPARTO, or SPANISH GRASS

esparto grass; but they also grow considerable amounts that the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European geographers extended the designation from this of cereals—See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat in the north, See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley in the south . The range of small area in the south of Tunisia to See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover much of inner Africa. the Saharan See also:

• ATLAS

Atlas of Algeria divides (roughly speaking) into two With this country of Jerid may be included the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of See also:

• JERBA

Jerba, at the Tunisian frontier . One See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch extends northwards up which lies See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close to the coast of Tunisia in the Gulf of Gabes . The this frontier and north-eastwards across the central Tunisian See also:

• PRESENT

present writer believes that the date palm was really indigenous table-See also:

• LAND

land, and the other continues south-eastwards between Gafsa to this district of the Jerid, as it is to countries of similar descripand the salt lakes of the Jerid . The greatest altitudes of the whole of tion in southern See also:

• MOROCCO

Morocco, southern Algeria, parts of the Tripoli-Tunisia are attained on this central table-land, where Mt Sidi See also:

• TAINE, HIPPOLYTE ADOLPHE (1828-1893)

taine, See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, See also:

• MESOPOTAMIA (Mevoaora)

Mesopotamia, southern See also:

• PERSIA

Persia and north-western See also:

• ALI

Ali bu Musin ascends to about 5700 ft . About 30 M. south of the See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India; but that north of the See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude of the Jerid the date did not city of Tunis is the picturesque See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain of Zaghwan, approxi- grow naturally in See also:

• MAURETANIA

Mauretania, just as it was foreign to all parts of mately 4000 ft. in altitude, and from whose perennial springs Europe, in which, as in true North Africa, its presence is due to comes the water-supply of Tunis to-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day as it did in the time of the the See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand of man . To some extent it may be said that true North Carthaginians and See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans . North-east of Zaghwan, and nearer Africa lies to the north of the Jerid country, which, besides its Tunis, is the See also:

• JEBEL (plur. jibed)

Jebel Resas, or Mountain of See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

Lead, the height of which Saharan, Arabian and See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian See also:

• AFFINITIES

affinities, has a See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch about it of is just under 4000 ft. real Africa, some such touch as may be observed in the valley of 3 . The'See also:

• SAHEL

Sahel . This well-known Arab term for coast-See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt (which the See also:

• JORDAN (the down-comer; Arab. esh-Sheri'a, the watering-place)
• JORDAN, CAMILLE (1771—1821)
• JORDAN, DOROTHEA (1762—1816)
• JORDAN, THOMAS (1612 ?–1685)
• JORDAN, WILHELM (1819–1904)

Jordan . In the oases of the Jerid are found several species of in the plural form reappears as the See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar " See also:

• SWAHILI (Wa-Swahili, i.e. coast people, from the Arabic sail, coast)

Swahili " of See also:

• ZANZIBAR

Zanzibar) tropical See also:

• AFRICAN

African mammals and two or three of Senegalese birds, is applied to a third division of Tunisia, viz. the littoral region and the vegetation seems to have as much See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity with tropical stretching from the Gulf of Hammamet to the south of See also:

• SFAX (Arabic Asfakis or Safakus, the cucumbers)

Sfax .

It Africa as with Europe . In fact, the country between the Matmata is a region varying from 30 to 6o m. in breadth, fairly well watered See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands and the strait separating Jerba from the mainland is and fertile . In a less marked way this fertile coast region is See also:

• CON

con- singularly African in the character and aspect of its flora . To the tinued southwards in an ever-narrowing belt to the Tripolitan south of the Jerid the country is mainly desert—vast unexplored frontier . This region is relatively See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat, in some districts slightly tracts of shifting See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand, with rare oases . Nevertheless,: all this marshy, but the water oozing from the See also:

• SOIL

soil is often brackish, and southern district of Tunisia bears See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of once having been. in places large shallow salt lakes are formed . Quite close to the subject to a heavy rainfall, which scooped out deep valleys in the sea, all along the coast from Hammamet to Sfax, there are See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• ORIGINAL

original table-land, and has justified the present existence of imfertility and much cultivation; but a little distance inland the country mense watercourses—watercourses which are still, near their origin, has a rather wild and desolate aspect, though it is nowhere a desert favoured with a little water . until the latitude of Sfax has been passed . Hot and See also:

• MINERAL

mineral springs may be almost said to constitute one of 4 . The Tunisian Sahara . This occupies the whole of the southern the specialities of Tunisia . They offered a singular attraction to division of Tunisia, but although desert predominates, it is by no the Romans, and their presence in remote parts of the M/neral means all desert .

At the south-eastern extremity of Tunisia there country no doubt was often the principal causeof See also:

• ROMAN

Roman Springs. is a See also:

• CLUMP

clump of mountainous country, the wind-and-water-worn See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement . Even at the present day their value is fragments of an See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient plateau, which for convenience may be much appreciated by the natives, who continue to bathe in the ruined styled the Matmata table-land . Here altitudes of over 3000 ft. are I Roman See also:

• BATHS

baths . The principal mineral springs of medicinal value reached in places, and in all the upper parts of this table-land there are those of Korbus and Hammam Lif (of remarkable efficacy in is fairly abundant vegetation, grass and herbage with See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low junipers, rheumatic and syphilitic affections and certain skin diseases), but with no pine trees . Fairly high mountains (in places verging of the Jerid and Gafsa, of El Hamma, near Gabes, and of various on 4000 ft.) are found between Gafsa and the salt lakes of the I sites in the Kroumir country . Jerid . I Climate.—The rainfall in the first See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical division is See also:

• PRETTY

pretty These salt lakes are a very curious feature . They stretch with I See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant, and may reach a yearly avera e of about 22 in . Over only two See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short breaks in a See also:

• LINE

line from the Mediterranean at the Gulf of Gabes to the Algerian frontier, which they penetrate for a considerable distance . They are called by the French (with their usual inaccuracy of See also:

• PRONUNCIATION (Lat. pronuntiatio, from pronuntiare, proclaim, announce, pronounce)

pronunciation and spelling) " chotts "; the word should really be the Arabic shat, an Arab term for a broad See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal, an See also:

• ESTUARY (from the Lat. aestuarium, a place reached by aestus, the tide)

estuary or lake . These shats however are, strictly speaking, not lakes at all at the present day . They are smooth de-pressed areas (in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of the largest, the Shat el Jerid, lying a few feet below the level of the Mediterranean), which for more than See also:

• HALF

half the See also:

• YEAR

year are expanses of dried mud covered with a thick incrustation of See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white or See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey salt .

This salt covering gives them meshes. at a distance the appearance of big sheets of water . During the winter. however, when the effect of the rare winter rains is See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt, there may actually be 3 or 4 ft. of water in these chats, which by liquefying the mud makes them perfectly impassable . Otherwise, for about seven months of the year they can be crossed on See also:

• FOOT

foot or on horseback . It would seem probable that at one time these shats (at any See also:

• RATE

rate the Shat el Jerid) were an inlet of the Mediterranean, which by the elevation of a narrow strip of land on the Gulf of Gabes has been cut off from them . It is, however, a region of past volcanic activity, and these salt depressions may be due to that cause . Man is probably the principal See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent at the present day in causing these shats to be without water . All round these salt lakes there are numerous springs, gushing from the sandy hillocks . Almost all these springs are at a very hot temperature, often at boiling point . Some of them are charged with salt, others are perfectly fresh and sweet, though boiling hot . So abundant is the second and third divisions the rainfall is less constant, and its yearly average may not exceed 17 in . The mean See also:

• ANNUAL

annual temperature at See also:

• SUSA (anc. Segusio, q.v.)
• SUSA (Biblical, Shushan)
• SUSA (Fr. Sousse)

Susa is 75° F., the mean of the winter or See also:

• RAINY, ROBERT (1826-1906)

rainy See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season 6o° and of the hot season 97° . At Tunis the temperature rarely exceeds 90°, except with a wind from the Sahara .

The prevailing winds from May to See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September are east and north-east and during the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the year north-west and east . A rainy season of about two months usually begins in See also:

• JANUARY

January ; the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring season of verdure is over in May; summer ends in See also:

• OCTOBER

October with the first rains . Violent winds are See also:

• COMMON

common at both equinoxes . In the Tunisian Sahara rain is most uncertain . Occasionally two or three years may pass without any rainfall; then may come floods after a heavy down-fall of a few See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks . Perhaps if an average could be struck it would amount to 9 or 10 in. per annum . [See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—The greater part of Tunisia is composed of sandstones, marls and loosely stratified deposits belonging to the See also:

• PLIOCENE (from the Gr. sr?eiov, mere, and xatvbs, recent)

Pliocene and See also:

• QUATERNARY

Quaternary periods . The See also:

• OLDEST

oldest strata, consisting of gypsiferous marls, are referred to the See also:

• MUSCHELKALK

Muschelkalk and show an See also:

• ALTERNATION (from Lat. alternare, to do by turns)

alternation of See also:

• LAGOON (Fr. lagune, Lat. lacuna, a pool)

lagoon with marine conditions . The See also:

• LIAS

Lias and Oolite formations are well represented, but the Sequanian and Kimmeridgian subdivisions are absent . Lower Cretaceous rocks, consisting of thick limestones, shales and marls, occur in Central Tunisia . The fossils show many notable affinities with those in the Lower Cretaceous of the See also:

• PYRENEES [Span. Pirineos, Fr. Pyrenees]

Pyrenees . Limestones and marls represent the stages Cenomanian to Upper Senonian ..

The fossils of the Cenomanian have affinities with those in the Cenomanian of Spain, Egypt; See also:

• MADAGASCAR

Madagascar, See also:

• MOZAMBIQUE [Sao Sebastiao de Mocambique]

Mozambique and India . The Senonian consists of a central facies with Micrasler peini; a meridional facies with Ostrea; and a northern facies See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed round Tunisia with large forms of Inoceramus and echinoids . Phosphatic deposits are well developed among the Lower See also:

• EOCENE (Gr. *In, dawn, icauvos, recent)

Eocene rocks . The See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle Eocene is characterized by the presence of Ostrea bogharensis and the Upper Eocene by highly fossiliferous sandstones and marls . The Oligocene and See also:

• MIOCENE

Miocene formations are present, but the Upper Miocene is confined to the coast . Quaternary deposits cover much of the desert regions.'] Minerals.—See also:

• COAL

Coal has been discovered in the Khmir (" Kroumir ") country, but the principal mines at present worked in Tunisia are those of See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper, lead and See also:

• ZINC

zinc . Zinc is chiefly found in the form of See also:

• CALAMINE

calamine . See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

Iron is worked in the See also:

• KEF

Kef district . Valuable deposits of See also:

• PHOSPHATES

phosphates are present, chiefly in the south-west of Tunisia, in the district of Gafsa . See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

Marble is found in the valley of the Majerda (at Shemtu), at Jebel Ust (about 35 M. south of Tunis), and at Jebel Dissa, near Gabes . The See also:

• MARBLES

marbles of Shemtu are the finest See also:

• PINK

pink Numidian marbles, which were much esteemed by the Carthaginians and Romans . It has been sought to See also:

• WORK

work again the ancient quarries of Shemtu, but it was found that the marble had been spoilt by ferruginous and calcareous See also:

• VEINS

veins .

Flora.—The flora of Tunisia is very nearly identical with that of Algeria, though it offers a few species either See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar to itself or not found in the last-named country . On the whole its character is less Saharan than that of parts of Algeria, for the influences of the desert do not penetrate so far north in Tunisia as they do in Algeria . There are very few patches of real See also:

• FOREST

forest outside the Khmir country,' though it is probable that in the time of the Romans the land was a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• DEAL

deal more covered with trees than at the present day, Some authorities, however, dispute this, in a measure, by saying that it was not naturally forested, and that the trees growing represented orchards of See also:

• OLIVES, MOUNT OF, or MOUNT OLIVET ("Opus 'EXc uwos or riov 'EXauav; mod. Jebel-et-Tur)

olives or other See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit trees planted by the Romans or romanized See also:

• BERBERS

Berbers . But in the Majerda Mountains there are dense primeval forests lingering to the present day, and consisting chiefly of the See also:

• CORK
• CORK (perhaps through Sp. corcha from Lat. cortex, bark, but possibly connected with quercus, oak)
• CORK, RICHARD BOYLE

cork See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak (Quercus ruber), and two other species of oak (Quercus mirbeckii and Q. See also:

• KERMES (Arab. girmiz; see CRIMSON)

kermes), the pistachio or terebinth See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree, the See also:

• SUMACH

sumach (Rhus pentaphila), and other species of Rhus which are widely spread . In the mountains of Khmiria and the central plateau there are also the See also:

• ALDER

alder, the See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

poplar, the Aleppo pine, the caroub, the See also:

• TAMARISK

tamarisk, the See also:

• MAPLE, SIR JOHN BLUNDELL, BART

maple, the See also:

• NETTLE (0. Eng. netele, cf. Ger. Nessel)

nettle-tree, several willows and junipers . The See also:

• JUJUBE

jujube-tree (Zizyphus) is found at various places along the eastern littoral, The 'rtama See also:

• SHRUB

shrub is met with in sandy districts, especially in the Sahara, but also right up to the north of Tunisia . The wild See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive, the wild See also:

• CHERRY

cherry, two species of wild plums, the See also:

• MYRTLE

myrtle, the See also:

• IVY (A.S. ifig, Ger. Epheu, perhaps connected with apium, anent)

ivy, arbutus, and two species of See also:

• HOLLY (Ilex Aquifolium)

holly are found in the mountains of Khmiria,. at various sites at high elevation near Tunis and Bizerta, and along the mountainous belt of the south-west which forms the frontier region between Tunisia and Algeria . The present writer, See also:

• RIDING

riding up to these frontier mountains from the thoroughly Saharan country round Gafsa, found himself surrounded by a flora very reminiscent of See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland or See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England . On the other hand, the flora of the shat region, of the south-eastern littoral, and of the Kerkena islands opposite Sfax, is thoroughly- Saharan, with a dash, as it were, in places of an African See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element . The date palm grows wild, as has been already related, in Jerba . The only other species of palm found wild in Tunisia is the Chamaerops humilis, or See also:

• DWARF (A.S. dweorg, D. dwerg, Icel. dvergr)

dwarf palm, which is found on the mountains of the north at no very great altitude . The wild See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers of the north of Tunisia are so extremely beautiful during the months of See also:

• FEBRUARY

February, See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March and See also:

• APRIL

April as to constitute a distinct attraetion in themselves ?

' See, L . Pervinquiere, L'Etude geologique de la Tunisie centrale (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 19o3); G . See also:

• ROLLAND, JOHN (fl. 1560)

Rolland, " See also:

• CARTE, THOMAS (1686-1754)

Carte geologique du littoral See also:

• NORD

nord de la Tunisie," See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

Bull. See also:

• SOC

soc. geol. de la France (1888), vol. xvii.; H . H . See also:

• JOHNSTON, ALBERT SIDNEY (1803–1862)
• JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER (1849-1888)
• JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER KEITH (1804-1871)
• JOHNSTON, ARTHUR (1587-1641)
• JOHNSTON, J
• JOHNSTON, JOSEPH EGGLESTON (1807-1891)
• JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY HAMILTON (1858- )

Johnston, " A See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

Journey through the Tunisian Sahara," Geog . Journ . (1898), vol. xi.; Carte geologique de la regence de Tunis, 1:800,000 with notes (Tunis, 1892) . ' See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

List of Plants commonly met with in northern Tunisia: See also:

• ADONIS

Adonis microcarpa, DC . Lycium europaeum, L . Nigella damascena, L . Solanum sodomaeum, L . Fumaria spicata, L .

Celsia cretica, L . Cistus halimifolius, L . Linaria, sp. allied to L. reflexa, Silene rubella, L . Desf . See also:

• OXALIS

Oxalis cernua, Thunb . Linaria triphylla, L, See also:

• VAR

var . See also:

• GERANIUM

Geranium tuberosum, L . Orobanche, sp . Malva sylvestris, L . Trixago a/ ula, Stev . Tetragonolobus purpureus, Moench . Cynomorium coccineum .

Retama retam, See also:

• WEBB, MATTHEW (1848-1883)
• WEBB, SIDNEY (1859– )

Webb." Plantago albicans, L . Fedia cornucopiae, Gaertn . See also:

• EUPHORBIA

Euphorbia serrata, L . Helichrysum Stoechas, DC . Ophrys fusca, See also:

• LINK

Link . See also:

• CENTAUREA

Centaurea (Seridia), sp . Orchis papilionacea, L . Urospermum Dalechampi, Desf . Romulea bulbocodium, Sebast. and See also:

• SCORZONERA (Scorzonera hispanica)

Scorzonera alexandrina, Boiss . Mauri . Stachys hirta, L . See also:

• GLADIOLUS

Gladiolus byzantinus, See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

Mill .

Stachys, sp. not identified . Ornithogalum umbellatum, L . Anagallis collina, Schousb . See also:

• ALLIUM (Lat. for " garlic ")

Allium roseum, L . Convolvulus tricolor, L . Asphodelus fistulosus, L . Solenanthus lanatus, DC . Muscari comosum, Mill . Fauna.—The fauna of Tunisia at the present day is much See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im• poverished as regards mammals, birds and See also:

• REPTILES (Lat. Reptilia, creeping things, from reptilis; ref ere, to creep; Gr. Ep7rety, whence the term " herpetology," for the science dealing with them)

reptiles . In 188o the present writer saw lions killed in the north-west of Tunisia, but by 1902 the See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

lion was regarded as practically See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct in the regency, though occasional rumours of his appearance come from the Khmir Mountains and near Feriana . Leopards of large See also:

• SIZE

size are still found in the north-west of central Tunisia . The See also:

• CHEETAH

cheetah lingers in the extreme south of the Jerid; so also does the See also:

• CARACAL
• CARACAL (Lynx caracal)

caracal See also:

• LYNX (Lat. Lynx, Gr. airy, probably connected with X hovewv, to see)

lynx .

The pardine lynx is found fairly abundantly in the west of Tunisia in the mountains and forest . The striped See also:

• HYENA

hyena is scattered over the country sparsely . The See also:

• GENET

genet and the common See also:

• JACKAL
• JACKAL (Turk. chakal)

jackal are fairly abundant . The common See also:

• ICHNEUMON (Gr. ixveu)

ichneumon is rare . The zorilla, another purely African species, is found in the south of Tunisia . The See also:

• BARBARY

Barbary See also:

• OTTER
• OTTER (0. Eng. ate, otor, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch and Ger. Otter, Dan. odder, Swed. utter; it is to be referred to the root seen in Gr. 6&ep, water)
• OTTER, SEA

otter is present in the Majerda and in some of the salt lakes . The Tunisian See also:

• HEDGEHOG, or URCHIN

hedgehog is peculiar to that country and to Algeria . There is a second species (Erinaceus deserti) which is common to all North Africa . In the south of Tunisia, especially about the shats, the See also:

• ELEPHANT

elephant-See also:

• SHREW

shrew (Macroscelides) is found, an See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal of purely African affinities . Tunisia does not appear to possess the Barbary See also:

• APE (Old Eng. ape; Dutch aap; Old Ger. a ffo; Welsh epa; Old Bohemian op; a word of uncertain origin, possibly an imitation of the animal's chatter)

ape, which is found in Algeria and Morocco . Natives of Morocco and of the Sahara oases occasionally bring with them See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young baboons which they assert are obtained in various Sahara countries to the south and south-west of Tunisia . These baboons appear to belong to the Nubian species, but they cannot be considered indigenous to any part of Tunisia .

The See also:

• PORCUPINE (Fr., pore-epic, " spiny pig ")

porcupine and a large Octodont rodent (Ctenodactylus), the See also:

• JERBOA

jerboa (two species), the See also:

• HARE
• HARE, SIR JOHN (1844– )

hare, and various other rodents are met with in Tunisia . The wild See also:

• BOAR (0. Eng. bar; the word is found only in W. Ger. languages, cf. Dutch beer, Ger. Eber)

boar inhabits the country, in spite of much persecution at the hands of " chasseurs." The forested regions shelter the hand-some Barbary red See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer, which is peculiar to this region and the adjoining districts of Algeria . In the extreme south, in the Sahara desert, the See also:

• ADDAX

addax See also:

• ANTELOPE

antelope is still found . The See also:

• HARTEBEEST

hartebeest appears now to be quite extinct; so also is the leucoryx, though formerly these two antelopes were found right up to the centre of Tunisia, as was also the See also:

• OSTRICH

ostrich, now entirely absent from the country . In the marshy lake near Mater (north Tunisia), round the mountain island of Jebel Ashkel, is a See also:

• HERD (a word common to Teutonic languages; the O. Eng. form was heord; cf. Ger. Herde, Swed. and Dan. hjord; the Sans. ca'rdhas, which shows the pre-Teutonic form, means a troop)

herd of over 50 buffaloes; these.. are said to resemble the domestic (See also:

• INDIAN

Indian) See also:

• BUFFALO

buffalo of the See also:

• LEVANT

Levant and Italy, and to have their origin in a See also:

• GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. die Gift, gift, das Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf. Dutch geven, Ger. geben; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence)

gift of domestic buffaloes from a former See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples to a See also:

• BEY (a modern Turk. word, the older form being beg, cf. Pers. baig)

bey or See also:

• DEY (an adaptation of the Turk. dai, a maternal uncle)

dey of Tunis . Others again assert the buffaloes to have been there from time immemorial ; ' in which case it is very desirable that a specimen should be submitted for examination . [An allied form with gigantic horns is found fossil in Algeria.] They are the private See also:

• PROPERTY

property of the bey, who very properly preserves them . Far down in the Sahara, to the south of Tunisia, the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report the existence of a wild See also:

• ASS (O.E. assa; Lat. asinus)
• ASS, FEAST OF THE

ass,' apparently identical with that of See also:

• NUBIA

Nubia . Roman mosaics show representations not only of this ass, but of the See also:

• ORYX (Gr. opvE, a pickaxe, hence applied to the animal)

oryx, hartebeest, and perhaps of the addax . The dorcas gazelle is still common in the south of Tunisia; but perhaps the most interesting ruminant is the magnificent See also:

• UDAD, AOUDAD

udad, or Barbary See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep, which is found in the sterile mountainous regions of south Tunisia . The birds have been ably}' illustrated by Mr See also:

• WHITAKER, JOSEPH (1820-1895)

Whitaker in the See also:

• IBIS

Ibis See also:

• MAGAZINE

magazine of the ]3ritisl'i Ornithological See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union . They are, as a See also:

• RULE

rule, common to the south Mediterranean region .

A beautiful little See also:

• BIRD

bird almost peculiar to the south of Tunisia and the adjoining regions of Algeria, is a species of See also:

• BUNTING
• BUNTING (a word of doubtful origin, possibly connected with bunt, to sift, or with the Ger. bunt, of varied colour)
• BUNTING, J
• BUNTING, JABEZ (1779-1858)

bunting (Fringilla), called by the Arabs bu-habibi.' This little bird, which is about the size of the See also:

• LINNET, O

linnet, has the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head and back silvery See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue, and the rest of the plumage See also:

• CHOCOLATE

chocolate red-See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown . It is of the most engaging tameness, being fortunately protected by popular sentiment from injury . It inhabits the Jerid, and ex-tends thence across the Algerian frontier . Among reptiles the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian See also:

• COBRA (Naja tripudians)

cobra seems to be indigenous in the south, where also is found the dreaded horned See also:

• VIPER

viper . Some nine or ten other species of See also:

• SNAKES

snakes are present, together with an abundance of lizards, including the Varanus, and most species of Mediterranean tortoises are represented . The coasts are very See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish, and the See also:

• TUNNY (Thunnus thynnus)

tunny See also:

• FISHERIES

fisheries