TURKESTAN  , a name conventionally employed to designate the regions of Central See also:

• ASIA

Asia which See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie between See also:

• SIBERIA

Siberia on the N. and See also:

• TIBET, or THIBET

Tibet, See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India and See also:

• AFGHANISTAN

Afghanistan on the S., the western limit being the See also:

• CASPIAN

Caspian See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea and the eastern See also:

• MONGOLIA

Mongolia and the See also:

• DESERT

Desert of See also:

• GOBI (for which alternative Chinese names are SHA-MO, " sand desert," and HAN-HAI, " dry sea ")

Gobi . Etymologically the See also:

• TERM

term is intended to indicate the regions inhabited by See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish races . How far this name was appropriate in the past need not be considered here; at See also:

• PRESENT

present the regions called Turkestan not only contain races which do not belong to the Turk See also:

• FAMILY

family, but it excludes races which do, e.g. the See also:

• TURKS

Turks of the See also:

• OTTOMAN

Ottoman See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire . Nevertheless the term, in its dual application of See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West Turkestan and See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East .or See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese Turkestan, has See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long been established, and in See also:

• DEFAULT (Fr. defaut, from defailler, to fail, Lat. fallere)

default of any better designations cannot very well be dispensed with . I.—WEST TURKESTAN West Turkestan is very nearly, though not quite, coincident with the territories which See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia possesses and controls in Asia, Siberia excepted . Thus it includes (1) the See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor-generalship of Turkestan, embracing the provinces of See also:

• FERGHANA, or FERGANA

Ferghana, See also:

• SAMARKAND

Samarkand, See also:

• SEMIRYECHENSK

Semiryechensk, and Syr-darya; the provinces of See also:

• AKMOLINSK

Akmolinsk and See also:

• SEMIPALATINSK

Semipalatinsk, and sometimes that of See also:

• TURGAI

Turgai belonging to the governor-generalship of the See also:

• STEPPES

Steppes; the Transcaspian region; and the semi-See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent states of See also:

• BOKHARA (Bokhara-i-Sherif)
• BOKHARA, or BUKHARA (the common central Asian pronunciation is Bukhara)

Bokhara and See also:

• KHIVA

Khiva . Its See also:

• TOTAL

total See also:

• AREA

area amounts approximately to 1,290,000 sq. m . See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

Geography.—Physically this region is divided into two sharply contrasted parts, the mountainous and highland See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country in the east and the See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat steppes and deserts in the west and See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north . The former are sufficiently described under the heading TIAN-SHAN . It will be enough to say here that the mountainous region belongs to the See also:

• GREAT

great orographical flange which runs from See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-west to north-east along the north-western margin of the great See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau of Central Asia . Hence it consists (I) partly of ranges, mostly See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow-capped, which stretch from south-west to north-east, and which in several cases terminate en See also:

• ECHELON (Fr. from ecltelle, ladder)

echelon on the See also:

• VERGE (Lat. virga, a rod)

verge of the desert, and (2) partly of ranges which strike away from the above at various angles, but in a predominantly north-western direction . The latter, including such ranges as the Chingiz-tau, Chu-11i Mountains, Kandyk-tau and See also:

• KHAN (from the Turki, hence Persian and Arabic Khan)

Khan-tau, the Ferghana range, the Kara-tau and the Nura-tau, are geologically of later origin than the great border ranges of the Tianshan proper, e.g .

Trans-Alai, Alai, Kokshal-tau, See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander range, Terskei See also:

• ALA

Ala-tau, Kunghei Ala-tau, Trans-See also:

• ILI

Ili Ala-tau and Dzungarian Ala-tau . The Tarbagatai Mountains, still farther north, are often classified as belonging to the See also:

• ALTAI (in Mongolian Altain-ula, the " Mountains of Gold ")

Altai See also:

• SYSTEM

system . Generally speaking, the ranges of both categories run at 10,000 to 20,000 ft., though419 altitudes as high as 23,000 ft. are attained by individual peaks, such as Mt See also:

• KAUFMANN, CONSTANTINE PETROVICH (1818-1882)

Kaufmann and Khan-tengri . Most of the loftier summits are capped with perpetual snow, and on some of them, e.g . Khantengri (Mushketov, Semenov, Inylchik) and the Kok-su Mountains (See also:

• FEDCHENKO, ALEXIS PAVLOVICH (1844-1873)

Fedchenko, Shurovsky), south of See also:

• PEAK, THE

Peak Kaufmann, there are well-See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed glaciers . Nearly all these border ranges rise abruptly and to great heights from the plains on the north or north-west, but have a much shorter and easier descent on the south or south-east . Hence the passes lie at great altitudes, ranging from about 9000 to 14,000 ft . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand the fact of the ranges radiating outwards towards the west, and the further fact that they are in more than one See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place penetrated by deep depressions (e.g . See also:

• DZUNGARIA, DSONGARIA, or JTNGARIA

Dzungaria, See also:

• KULJA (Chinese, Ili-ho)

Kulja, Issyk-kul, Ferghana) for a considerable distance towards the east, greatly facilitate See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to the loftier plateau lands of Central Asia, and have from See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time immemorial been the highways of human intercourse between East and West . Like the See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands of Siberia, those of Turkestan are fringed by a See also:

• GIRDLE (O. Eng. gyrdel, from gyrdan, to gird; cf. Ger. Gurtel, Dutch gordel, from giirten and gorden; "gird" and its doublet " girth " together with the other Teutonic cognates have been referred by some to the root ghar—to seize, enclose, seen in Gr. )(s

girdle of plains, having an See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude of woo to 1500 ft., and these again are skirted by an immense See also:

• LOWLAND

lowland area reaching Lowland only 400, 30o and 15o ft. above sea-level, or even plains . sinking below the level of the ocean . Some geographers See also:

• DIVIDE

divide them into two sections—the higher plains of the See also:

• BALKASH, or BALKHASH (called by the Kirghiz Ak-denghiz or Ala-denghiz and by the Chinese Si-hai)

Balkash (the Ala-kul and Balkash drainage areas) and the See also:

• ARAL

Aral-Caspian depression, which occupies nearly two-thirds of the whole and has been ably described by I .

V . Mushketov under the appropriate name of Turanian See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin—the Kara-tau Mountains, between the Chu and the Syr-darya See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, being considered as the dividing See also:

• LINE

line between the two . The Balkash plains, more than woo ft. above the sea, and covered with See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay, with a girdle of See also:

• LOESS (Ger. Loss)

loess at their See also:

• FOOT

foot, are well drained by the Ili and other feeders of See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake Balkash and support the numerous flocks and herds of the See also:

• KIRGHIZ

Kirghiz . To the south-west the clayey See also:

• SOIL

soil becomes saline . There is the See also:

• FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

Famine See also:

• STEPPE (from the Russ. stepi, a waste)

steppe (Bekpak-See also:

• BALA

Bala), while in the Ak-See also:

• KUM

kum steppe, which surrounds Lake Karakul, large areas consist of nothing but sands, partly shifting . The plains and lowlands of the Turanian basin are subdivided by a line See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from north-east to south-west along a slight range of hills See also:

• RUNNING

running from the See also:

• SOURCES

sources of the See also:

• ISHIM

Ishim towards the south-east corner of the Caspian (Bujnurd and See also:

• ELBURZ, or ALBURZ (from O. Pers. Hara-bere-zaili, the " High Mountain ")

Elburz edge of See also:

• KHORASAN, or KHORASSAN (i.e. " land of the sun ")

Khorasan) . This See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low range, which most probably separated the lowlands of the Aral-Caspian region (submerged during the See also:

• POST

Post-See also:

• PLIOCENE (from the Gr. sr?eiov, mere, and xatvbs, recent)

Pliocene See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period) from the higher plains which had emerged by the end of the See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary period, now divides the Transcaspian steppes from' the somewhat different higher plains . In the Turanian basin the contrast between desert and See also:

• OASIS (Gr. &toss, the name given by Herodotus to the fertile spots in the Libyan desert: it probably represents an Egyptian word, cf. Coptic ouahe, ouih, to dwell, from which the Egyptian Arabic sod is derived)

oasis is much stronger than in the Balkash region . Fertile soil, or rather soil which can be rendered fertile by See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation, is limited to a narrow See also:

• TERRACE (Fr. terrace, terrasse, from It. terraccia, terrazzo, Lat. terra, earth)

terrace of loess along the foot of the mountains, and is surrounded by barren deserts . Even where the loess stretches out over terraces at some distance from the mountains, as in the south-east of the Transcaspian region, it can be cultivated only when irrigated . Two rivers only—the Syr and the Amu—succeed in getting across the desert and reaching the Sea of Aral . But their former tributaries no longer run their full course: the See also:

• GLACIER
• GLACIER (adopted from the French; from glace, ice, Lat. glacies)

glacier-fed Zarafshan dries up amid the gardens of Bokhara soon after emerging from the highlands; and the Tejeff and the See also:

• MURGHAB

Murghab lose themselves in the recesses of the Kara-kum desert .

The only tributaries which the Amu retains are those whose whole course is within the high-lands . In the north such formerly important tributaries of the Syr-darya as the Chu, with its sub-tributary the Sary-su, now dry up some hundreds of See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles before reaching the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main stream . The whole area is now undergoing See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological changes on a vast See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale . Rivers have changed their courses, and lakes their outlines . Far away from their present shores the geologist finds See also:

• DESICCATION (from the Lat. desiccare, to dry up)

Desiccation. indubitable signs of the See also:

• RECENT

recent presence of lakes in the shells they have See also:

• LEFT

left amid the sands . Traces of former rivers and channels, which were the main See also:

• ARTERIES (Gr. ap-rnpia, probably from a"spew, to raise, but popularly connected by the ancients with ai7P, air)

arteries of prosperous regions within the period of written See also:

• HISTORY

history, have now disappeared . Of the highly developed civilizations which See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew up and flourished in See also:

• BACTRIA (Bactriana)

Bactria, Bokhara and Samarkand the last survivals are now undergoing rapid obliteration with the simultaneous desiccation of the rivers, and lakes . The great " See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

Blue Sea of Central Asia, the Sea of Aral, which at a recent See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch (Post-Glacial) extended south-west as far as Sary-kamysh, and the shells of which are found north and east of its present shores 5o to 200 ft. above its present level (157 ft. above the ocean, and 248 above the Caspian), now occupies but a small portion of its former extent . It fills a shallow depression which is drying up with astonishing rapidity, so that the See also:

• PROCESS

process of desiccation can be shown on surveys separated by intervals of only ten years; large parts of it, like Aibughir Gulf, have' dried up since the Russians took See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of its shores . The whole country is dotted over with lakes, which are rapidly disappearing under the hot winds of the deserts . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.'—Like the highlands of eastern Asia, those of Turkestan are mostly built up on Pre-See also:

• CAMBRIAN

Cambrian gneisses and metamorphic slates, resting upon granites, syenites, old See also:

• ORTHOCLASE

orthoclase porphyries, and the like . These upheavals date from the remotest geological ages; and since the See also:

• PRIMARY

Primary epoch a triangular See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent having its 1 R .

Pumpelly and others, Explorations in Turkestan (See also:

• WASHINGTON
• WASHINGTON (or WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE)
• WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (c. 1859– )
• WASHINGTON, BUSHROD (1762-1829)
• WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732-1799)

Washington, 1905), contains references to the geological literature to the date of publication . See also:

• APEX

apex turned towards the north-east, as See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa and See also:

• AMERICA

America have theirs pointing southward, See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of what now constitutes Asia . It is only in the See also:

• OUTER

outer foldings of the highlands that Palaeozoic fossiliferous deposits are found—See also:

• SILURIAN

Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous . Within that period the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal valleys were excavated, and their See also:

• LOWER

lower parts have been filled up subsequently with See also:

• JURASSIC

Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits . One of the most striking instances of this is the very thick Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits which See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover the bottom of the valley of the Vakhsh (right tributary of the Amu) and are continued for about 300 M. to the north-east, as far as the Alai valley—probably along the edge of the Pamir plateau . The deposits of the Secondary period have not maintained their See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal position . While upheavals having a north-eastern strike continued to take place after the Carboniferous epoch,' another See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of upheavals, having a north-western strike, and occasioned by the expansion of diabases, dolerites, melaphyres and andesites, occurred later, subsequently at least to the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the Tertiary period, if not also before it, dislocating former chains and raising rocks to the highest levels by the addition of new upheavals to the older ones . Through-out the Triassic and Jurassic periods nearly all Turkestan remained a continent indented by gulfs and lagoons of the south See also:

• EUROPEAN

European Triassic and Jurassic sea . Immense fresh-See also:

• WATER

water lakes, in which were deposited layers of See also:

• PLANTS

plants (now yielding See also:

• COAL

coal), filled up the depressions of the country . Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits occur extensively along the edge of the highlands . Upper and Middle Cretaceous, containing See also:

• PHOSPHATES

phosphates, See also:

• GYPSUM

gypsum, See also:

• NAPHTHA

naphtha, See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur and See also:

• ALUM

alum, attain thicknesses of 2000 and 5000 ft. in See also:

• HISSAR

Hissar . Representatives of all the Tertiary formations are met with in Turkestan; but while in the highlands the strata are See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast-deposits, they assume an open sea See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character in the lowlands, and their See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich fossil See also:

• FAUNA

fauna furnishes See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual shallowing of that sea, until at last, after the Sarmathian period, it became a closed Mediterranean .

During the Post-Pliocene period this sea See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke up into several parts, See also:

• UNITED

united by narrow straits . The connexion of Lake Balkash with the Sea of Aral can hardly be doubted ; but this portion of the great sea was the first to be divided . While the Sea of Aral remained in connexion with the Caspian, the desiccation of the Lake Balkash basin, and its break-up into smaller See also:

• SEPARATE

separate basins, were already going on . The See also:

• QUATERNARY

Quaternary epoch is represented by vast morainic deposits in the valleys of the Tian-shan . About Khan-Tengri glaciers descended to a level of 6800 ft. above the sea,2 and discharged into the wide open valleys or syrts . It is most probable that, when See also:

• ALLOWANCE (from "allow,' derived through 0. Fr. alouer from the two Lat. origins adlaudare, to praise, and allocare, to assign a place; so that the English word combined the general idea of "assigning with approval")

allowance has been made for the obliteration of glacial markings, and the region has been better explored, it will appear that the glaciation of Turkestan was on a scale at least as vast as that of the Himalayas . In the lowlands the Aral-Caspian deposits, which it is difficult to separate sharply from the later Tertiary, cover the whole of the area . They contain shells of molluscs now inhabiting the Sea of Aral, and in their petrographical features are exactly like those of the lower See also:

• VOLGA (known to the Tatars as Etil, Jill or Atel; to the Finnish tribes as Rau, and to the ancients as Rha and Oarus)

Volga . The limits of the Post-Pliocene Aral-Caspian sea have not yet been fully traced . It extended some 200 M. north and more than 90 in, east of the present Aral shores . A narrow strait connected it with Lake Balkash . The Ust-Urt plateau and the Mugojar Mountains pre-vented it from spreading north-westward, and a narrow channel connected it along the Uzboi with the Caspian, which sent a broad See also:

• TUFF (Ital. tufo)

tuff to the east, spread up to the Volga, and was connected by the lanych with the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black Sea basin .

Great See also:

• INTEREST

interest, geological and See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical, thus attaches to the recent changes undergone by this basin . Since the theory of geological cataclysms was abandoned, and that of slow modifications of the crust of the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth accepted, new data have been obtained in the Aral-Caspian region to show that the See also:

• RATE

rate of modification after the close of the Glacial period, although still very slow, was faster than had been supposed from the evidence of similar changes now going on in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe and America . The effects produced by desiccating agencies are beyond all comparison more powerful than those which result from the earthquakes that are so frequent in Turkestan . All along the See also:

• BASE

base of the highlands, from See also:

• KHOJENT, or KHOJEND

Khojent to See also:

• VYERNYI (formerly ALMATY)

Vyernyi, earthquakes are frequent;' but their effects lie beyond the See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope of our observational methods . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—The climate of West Turkestan is exceedingly dry and See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental . Although the country is approximately comprised within the latitudes of See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily and See also:

• LYONS
• LYONS (Fr. Lyon)
• LYONS, COUNCILS OF
• LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858)
• LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817–1887)

Lyons, it has a south See also:

• NORWEGIAN

Norwegian See also:

• JANUARY

January and a See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian summer . Temperatures of more than too° F. in the shade are See also:

• COMMON

common, and the See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat is rendered still more unbearable by the reflection from a soil destitute of vegetation . The See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter is for the most See also:

• PART

part so See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold that the See also:

• AVERAGE

average temperature of January is below the freezing point, and even reaches o° F . Snow falls for several months on the lower Syr-darya, and, were it not blown away by the winds, sledge-communication would be possible . This See also:

• RIVER

river is frozen for an average of 123 days every See also:

• YEAR

year in its lower parts and nearly too days at Perovsk . At See also:

• TASHKENT, or TASHKEND

Tashkent there is snow during two months and temperatures of — to° F. have been observed; on the other hand the maximum observation ' I . V .

Mushketov's Turkestan (pp . 35, 681) seems to justify this conclusion . s See I . Ignatyev, in Izvestia of Russ . Geog . See also:

• SOC

Soc . (1887), vol. See also:

• XXIII

xxiii . ' Ibid.; also See also:

• ORLOV

Orlov in Mem. of Kazan Naturalists (1873), vol. iii . is io8° . To the south of Khojent the winter becomes more See also:

• CLEMENT (Lat. Clemens, i.e. merciful; Gr. K)4gs)
• CLEMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793)
• CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589)

clement . See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

Absence of See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain is the distinctive feature of the climate . Although it rains and snows heavily on the mountains, only 11 in. of rain and snow fall throughout the year at Tashkent, at the base of the highlands; and the steppes of the lower Amu have less .

A few showers are all that fall from the almost invariably cloudless See also:

• SKY (M. Eng. skie, cloud; O. Eng. skua, shade; connected with an Indo-European root sku, cover, whence " scum," Lat. obscurus, dark, &c.)

sky above the Transcaspian steppes . Fauna.—The fauna of Turkestan belongs to the zoo-See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical domain of See also:

• NORTHERN

northern Asia, and is only differentiated by the presence of See also:

• SPECIES

species which have disappeared from the peripheral parts of the Old See also:

• WORLD

World and now find a See also:

• REFUGE

refuge in the remotest regions of the uninhabited plateau . From the Palaeoarctic region it is distinguished by the presence of Himalayan species . The distinctive See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal of the Pamir plateau is the magnificent Ovis poli (conjectured to be the ancestor of the common See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep) . In the alpine tracts of the Tian-shan, on the See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of the Pamir, their horns and skulls are frequently met with, but' there the place of the species is now taken by Ovis karelini . The See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse, which occurred in See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

Poland a few centuries ago, was discovered by Prezhevalsky in the highlands of Dzungaria . The wild See also:

• CAMEL (from the Arabic Djemal or the Heb. Gamal)

camel inhabits the lonely plateaus south of the Ala-shan . The other mammals of Turkestan are mostly those which are met with elsewhere in north Asia . The Himalayan See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear (Ursus isabellinus) has its See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home on the Pamir, and the smaller Leuconyx up to the highest levels on the Tianshan . Antelopes, Lepus lehmanni, Lagomys rutilus, various species of Arvicolae, and the Himalayan long-tailed See also:

• MARMOT

marmot (Arctomys caudatus), the most characteristic inhabitant of the alpine meadows, are the only mammals of the Pamir proper . In the alpine region are found the See also:

• BADGER

badger (Meles taxus), the See also:

• ERMINE

ermine (Putorius ermineus) and six other Mustelidae, the wild See also:

• DOG

dog (Canis alpinus), the common and the black-eared See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

fox (C. melanotis), while the corsac fox (C. corsac) is met with only on the plains . Two species of See also:

• LYNX (Lat. Lynx, Gr. airy, probably connected with X hovewv, to see)

lynx, the See also:

• CHEETAH

cheetah (Felis jubata), F. See also:

• MANUL (Felis manul)

manul, and F. irbis, must be added to the above .

The See also:

• TIGER
• TIGER (Felis tigris)

tiger is met with only on the lower Amu-darya, except when it wanders to the alpine region in pursuit of the maral See also:

• DEER (O. E. rigor, dfor, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. Tier, Du. dier, &c., probably from a root dhus-, to breathe)
• DEER, CHINESE

deer (Cervus maral) . The See also:

• JACKAL
• JACKAL (Turk. chakal)

jackal is characteristic of the steppes; it banishes the wolves and foxes . See also:

• HARES

Hares are represented by several species, Lepus lehmanni being the most characteristic . Both the common and the long-tailed marmot (A. baibacinus and A. caudatus) live at the foot of the mountains, as well as four species of Spermophilus, three of voles, two of the See also:

• MOUSE

mouse and three of the See also:

• HAMSTER

hamster . The Meriones (four species) and the See also:

• JERBOA

jerboa (five species) are only met with in the steppe region . Of ruminants, beside the sheep (O. poli, 0. karelini, O. nigrimontana, O. heinsii), we find one moufflon (Musimon vignei), formerly known only in the Himalayas, the Chinese See also:

• ANTELOPE

antelope (Antilope subgutturosa) and the See also:

• SAIGA (Saiga tatarica)

saiga antelope in the steppes, the Siberian See also:

• IBEX

ibex and another See also:

• GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. gat, Goth. gaits, Mod. Ger. Geiss, cognate with Lat. haedus, a kid)

goat, the See also:

• YAK

yak, the zebu or See also:

• INDIAN

Indian ox, the common ox, the camel and the See also:

• DROMEDARY (from the Gr. Spoµas, SpoµaSos, running, Spaueiv, to run)

dromedary . The wild See also:

• BOAR (0. Eng. bar; the word is found only in W. Ger. languages, cf. Dutch beer, Ger. Eber)

boar is common in the See also:

• REED
• REED, ANDREW (1787-1862)
• REED, ISAAC (1742—1807)
• REED, JOSEPH (1741—1785)
• REED, THOMAS BRACKETT (1839—1902)

reed thickets along the rivers and lakes, where it stays during the winter, migrating to the high-lands in summer . The See also:

• HEDGEHOG, or URCHIN

hedgehog and See also:

• PORCUPINE (Fr., pore-epic, " spiny pig ")

porcupine are common in the plains . No fewer than 385 species of avifauna are recorded, most of them being middle-European and Mediterranean . A large number were formerly known only in the Himalayas, or in See also:

• PERSIA

Persia, while others have their origin in East Asia . The commonest are mostly European acquaintances . The See also:

• INSECT

insect fauna is truly multitudinous .

Among the See also:

• LEPIDOPTERA (Gr. ?emir, a scale or husk, and 7rrepov, a wing)

Lepidoptera of the Pamir there is an interesting mixture of Tian-shan with Himalayan species . G . E . Grum-Grshimailo found on the Pamir the butterfly Colias nastes, a species characteristic of Labrador and See also:

• LAPLAND, or LAPPLAND

Lapland; like the alpine plants which bear See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness to a Glacial period See also:

• FLORA

flora in the Himalayas, this butterfly is a survival of the Glacial period fauna of the Pamir.* Of 5o species of molluscs found in Turkestan quite one See also:

• HALF

half are See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar to the region . Flora.—As a whole the flora of Turkestan is identical with that of Central Asia, which was formerly continued by geo-botanists as far west as the steppes of Russia, but which must now be considered as a separate region subdivided into two—the Central Asian proper and that of .the Gobi . It has its own habitus, notwithstanding the number of species it has in common with Siberia and south-east Russia on the one hand and with the Himalayas on the other, and this habitus is due to the dryness of the climate and the consequent changes undergone by the soil . Towards the end of the Glacial period the Tian-shan Mountains had a flora very like that of northern See also:

• CAUCASIA
• CAUCASIA, or CAUCASUS

Caucasia, combining the characteristics of the flora of the European See also:

• ALPS

Alps and the flora of the Altai, while the prairies had a flora very much like that of the south See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian steppes . During the See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

Stone See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

Age the human inhabitants lived in forests of See also:

• MAPLE, SIR JOHN BLUNDELL, BART

maple, See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• BEECH

beech and See also:

• APPLE (a common Teut. word, A.S. aepl, aeppel, O.H.G. aphul, aphal, apfal, mod. Ger. Apfel)

apple trees . But the gradual desiccation of the country resulted * For ampler See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information, see N . A . Syevertsov's " See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

Vertical and Horizontal See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

Distribution of Turkestan Animals," in Izvestia of the See also:

• MOSCOW (Russian Moskva)
• MOSCOW, (Russian Moskva)

Moscow Soc. of Amateurs of Nat . See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

Science (1873) ; A .

P . Fedchenko's " Travels in Turkestan " (vols. xi., xix., xxi., See also:

• XXIV

xxiv. and See also:

• XXVI

xxvi. of the same Izvestia), forming a series of monographs by specialists which See also:

• DEAL

deal with separate divisions of the animal and See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom (the flora by E . A . Regel) ; Oshanin's Zoo-Geographical Problems in Turkestan (Tashkent, i 88o) ; G . E . Grum-Grshimailo's " Flora and Fauna of Pamir," in Izvestia of Russ . Geog . Soc . (1886) ; See also:

• WORKS

Works of the Aral-Caspian Expedition . in. the See also:

• IMMIGRATION (from Lat. in, into, and tnigrare, to depart)

immigration from the Central Asian plateau of such species as could adapt themselves to the dry climate and soil, in the disappearance of European and Altaic species from all the more arid parts of the region, in the survival of steppe species, and in the See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation of many of the existing species to the needs of an arid and extreme climate and a saline soil . 1 The Pamir vegetation and that of the Aral-Caspian steppes constitute two types with numberless intermediate gradations . There is no arboreal vegetation on the Pamir, except a few willows and tamarisks along the rivers .

See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

Mountain and valley alike are carpeted with soft grass, various species of Festuca predominating . In the immediate vicinity of water the sedge (Caret physoides) grows, and sporadic patches of See also:

• ALLIUM (Lat. for " garlic ")

Allium . To these may be added a few See also:

• RANUNCULACEAE

Ranunculaceae, some Myosotis, the common See also:

• TARAXACUM

Taraxacum, one species of Chamomilla, and a few See also:

• LEGUMINOSAE

Leguminosae . In the north and west the Stipa of the Russian steppes supersedes Festuca and affords splendid pasture for the herds of the Kara-Kirghiz . In the See also:

• GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (c. 1566-1647)

gorges and on the better-watered slopes of the mountains the herbaceous vegetation becomes luxuriant . Besides the above-named there are many other Gramineae, such as Lasiagrostis splendens, the whole seas of Scabiosae . Eremurus, 6 to 7 ft. in height, forms thickets along with Scorodosma foetida . The northern slopes of the 'Alai See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain are richer in trees . Up to 12,000 ft. full-grown specimens occur of the archa or See also:

• JUNIPER

juniper (Juniperus pseudo-Sabina), characteristic of the whole northern slopes of the Turkestan highlands, the See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

poplar, spruces, cedars, a very few birches (B . See also:

• SOGDIANA (Sugdiane, O. Pers. Sughuda)

Sogdiana), and a copious undergrowth of shrubs See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar in European gardens, such as See also:

• RHODODENDRON

Rhododendron chrysanthum, Sorbus aucuparia (rowan), Berberis heteropoda (berberry), Lonicera Tatarica (See also:

• HONEYSUCKLE (Mid. Eng., honysocle, i.e. any plant from which honey may be sucked,—cf. A.-S. huni-suge, privet; Ger. Geissblalt; Fr. chevrefeuille)

honeysuckle) and Crataegus (haw-See also:

• THORN (O. Eng. porn, cf. Du. doorn, Ger. Dorn, &c)
• THORN (Polish Torun)

thorn) . Farther east and north comes the Turkestan See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine (Picea Schrenkiana), while at lower levels there grow willows, black and white poplars, See also:

• TAMARISK

tamarisk, Celtis, as well as Elaeagnus (wild See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive), See also:

• HIPPO

Hippo phae rhamnoides (sallow thorn), Rubusfructicosus (See also:

• BLACKBERRY, or BRAMBLE

blackberry), Prunus spinosa (blackthorn) and P . Armcniaca (See also:

• APRICOT (from the Lat. praecox, or praecoquus, ripened early, coquere, to cook, or ripen; the English form, formerly " apricock " and " abrecox," comes through the Fr. abricot, from the Span. albaricoque, which was an adaptation of the Arabic al-burquk, i

apricot) .

Thecharacteristic poplar, Populus diversifolia, and the See also:

• DWARF (A.S. dweorg, D. dwerg, Icel. dvergr)

dwarf Acer Lobeliivery different from the European maple—also occur . The above applies to most of the highlands of the Tian-shan . The drier See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern slopes are quite devoid of arboreal vegetation . On the northern slopes, at the higher levels, Juniperus pseudo-Sabina is the only See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree that grows on the mountains, and luxuriant meadow See also:

• GRASSES

grasses cover the syrts . Lower down, at 7500 to 8000 ft. the coniferous See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone begins, characterized by the Picea Schrenkiana . Of course the juniper and a few other See also:

• DECIDUOUS (from Lat. decidere, to fall down)

deciduous trees also occur . The richest zone is that which comes next, extending downwards to 5000 and 4500 ft . There See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods of See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

birch, several species of poplar, the maple (Acer Semenovii), and thick underwoods spread over the mountain slopes . Orchards of apple and apricot surround the villages., The meadows are clothed with a rich vegetation—numberless Paeoniae, Scabiosae, See also:

• CONVOLVULACEAE

Convolvulaceae, Campanulae, Eremurus, See also:

• UMBELLIFERAE

Umbelliferae, See also:

• GALLIUM (symbol Ga; atomic weight 69.9)

Gallium, See also:

• ROSACEAE

Rosaceae, Altheae, Glycyrrhizae, Scorodosma foetida and Gramineae . But as soon as the soil loses its fertile humus it produces only a few Phlomis, Alhagi camelorum, Psammae, Salsolaceae, Artemisiae, Peganum and some poppies and Chamomillae, but only, in the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring . The invading steppe plants appear everywhere in patches in the Turkestan meadows . The " culture " or " apricot " zone is followed by the See also:

• PRAIRIE (adopted from the Fr. prairie, a meadow-tract. Late Lat. prataria, Lat. pratum, meadow)

prairie See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt, in which black-earth plants (Stipa and the like) struggle for existence against invading Central Asian forms .

And then come the lowlands and deserts with their moving sandy barkhans, shors and takyrs (see TRANSCASPIAN REGION) . Two species of poplar (P. pruinosa and P. diversifolia), Elaeagnus angustsfolia, the ash, and a few willows grow along the rivers . Large areas are wholly destitute of vegetation, and after See also:

• CROSSING

crossing too m. of such a desert the traveller will occasionally come upon a See also:

• FOREST

forest of saksaul (See also:

• ANABASIS

Anabasis Amnsodendron) . Contorted stems, sometimes of considerable thickness, very hard, and covered with a See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey cracked bark, rise out of the See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand, bearing See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green plumes with small greyish leaves and See also:

• PINK

pink See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit . Sometimes the tree is a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere See also:

• KNOT
• KNOT (O.E. cnotta, from a Teutonic stem knutt; cf. " knit," and Ger. knoten)

knot peeping above the sand with a sheaf of thin branches . In spring, however, the steppe assumes quite another aspect, being clothed, except where the sands are shifting, with an abundance of vegetation . Persian species penetrate into Bokhara and the region of the upper Amu . Vegetable Products.—As already stated the climate of Turkestan varies considerably,from north to south . In Akmolinsk and Semiryechensk most of the kinds of See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn which characterize Middle Russia are grown . South of the Chu and the Syr-darya gardening is a considerable See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry; and, although See also:

• RYE

rye and See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat continue to be the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief crops, the cultivation of the apple, and especially of the apricot, acquired importance . Attempts are also made to cultivate the See also:

• VINE

vine . The inhabitants of the neighbourhood of Tashkent and Samarkand, as well as those of the much more northern but better sheltered Kulja oasis, add the cultivation of the See also:

• ALMOND (from the O. Fr. almande or alemande, late Lat. amandola, derived through a form amingdola from the Gr. l uybian, an almond; the al- for a- is probably due to a confusion with the Arabic article al, the word having first dropped the a- as in the It

almond, See also:

• POMEGRANATE

pomegranate and fig .

Vines are grown and See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton planted in those districts . Finally, about Khojent and in Ferghana, where the climate is milder still, the vine and the pistachio tree cover the hills, while See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture and See also:

• HORTICULTURE
• HORTICULTURE (Lat. hortus, a garden)

horticulture have reached a high degree of perfec- I See Krasnov's researches in Izvestia of Russ . Geog . Soc . (1887), vol. xxiii . See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

Lion . Successful attempts are being made to grow the See also:

• TEA (Chinese cha, Amoy dialect t€)

tea-plant in the Transcaspian region . Large See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers of oleaginous plants are cultivated, such as See also:

• SUNFLOWER

sunflower . Agriculture.—The arable See also:

• LAND

land, being limited to the irrigated terraces of loess, occupies little more than 2 % of the whole area of West Turkestan . The See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder is divided between pasture land (less than 44%) and desert (54%) . Owing to a very equitable distribution of irrigation water in accordance with Moslem See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, agriculture and gardening have reached a high See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of development in the oases . Altogether close upon 4,000,000 acres are irrigated, and the crops are usually taken every year .

Wheat, See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley, See also:

• MILLET (Fr. millet; Ital. miglietto, diminutive of miglio= Lat. mille, a thousand, in allusion to its fertility)
• MILLET (or MILE), JEAN FRANCOIS (c. 1642–1679)
• MILLET, FRANCIS DAVIS (1846- )
• MILLET, JEAN FRANCOIS (1814–1875)

millet, See also:

• PEASE, EDWARD (1767–1858)

pease, lentils, See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)