See also:

• UNITED

UNITED PROVINCES OF See also:

• AGRA

AGRA AND OUDH (formerly known as the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North-Western Provinces and Oudh)  , a See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India, lying between 23° 52' and 31° 18' N., and between 77° 3' and 84° 39' E . The province, including native states, has a See also:

• TOTAL

total See also:

• AREA

area of 112,243 sq. m . It is bounded N. by See also:

• TIBET, or THIBET

Tibet; N.E. by See also:

• NEPAL, NEPAUL

Nepal; E. by See also:

• BENGAL
• BENGAL, BAY OF

Bengal; S. by See also:

• CHOTA (or CHUTIA) NAGPUR

Chota See also:

• NAGPUR

Nagpur, See also:

• REWA, or RIWA

Rewa, the See also:

• BUNDELKHAND

Bundelkhand states, and the Central Provinces; and on the W. by See also:

• GWALIOR

Gwalior, See also:

• RAJPUTANA

Rajputana and the See also:

• PUNJAB

Punjab . z The See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of this See also:

• SYNOD
• SYNOD (Gr. vbvobos)

synod joined the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church of See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland in 1839 . The small minority which still retained the name joined the See also:

• ORIGINAL

Original Seceders in 1842, the resultant See also:

• BODY

body assuming the designation of See also:

• UNITED

United Original Seceders . A small majority (twenty-seven ministers in all) of the Synod of United Original Seceders joined the See also:

• FREE

Free Church in 1852 . A dissentient remnant (eight congregations) of the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

General See also:

• ASSOCIATE (Lat. associates, from ad, to, and sociare to join)

Associate Synod united with the Constitutional Associate See also:

• PRESBYTERY

Presbytery in 1827, the resultant body being called the Associate Synod of Original Seceders . II See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical Aspects.—The province occupies, roughly speaking, the upper See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of the See also:

• GANGES (GANGA)

Ganges and the See also:

• JUMNA, or JAMUNA

Jumna, corresponding to the Hindostan proper of the See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan chroniclers . A large semi-circular See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract, comprising the valleys of the See also:

• GOGRA, or GHAGRA

Gogra and the See also:

• GUMTI

Gumti, has See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long been separated from the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder of the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain as the See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of Oudh; and though since 877 it has been under the administrative See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of a See also:

• LIEUTENANT

lieutenant-See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor, it retains certain features of its former status as a See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief-commissionership . The province includes the whole upper portion of the wide Gangetic basin, from the Himalayas and the Punjab plain to the Vindhyan See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau, and the See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low-lying ricefields of See also:

• BEHAR, or BIHAR

Behar . Taken as a whole, the lieutenant-governorship consists of the richest See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat-bearing See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country in India, irrigated both naturally by the See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers which take their rise in the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern mountains, and artificially by the magnificent See also:

• SYSTEM

system of canals which owe their origin to British enter-prise . It is studded with villages, interspersed at greater distances with commercial towns .

Except during the hot See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season, when the crops are off the See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields, the general aspect in normal years is that of a verdant and well-tilled but very monotonous plain, only merging into hilly or mountainous country at the extreme edges of the basin on the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south and See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north . The course of the great rivers marks the prevailing slope of the See also:

• LAND

land, which falls away from the Himalayas, the Rajputaiia uplands, and the Vindhyan plateau south-eastwards towards the See also:

• BAY

Bay of Bengal . The 'chief natural features of the province are thus determined by the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main streams, whose alluvial deposits first formed the central portion of the United Provinces; while the currents afterwards cut deep channels through the detritus they brought down from the See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring of hills or uplands . The extreme or north-western Himalayan region comprises the native See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of See also:

• GARHWAL, or GURWAL

Garhwal, with the British districts of See also:

• DEHRA

Dehra Dun, Naini Tat, See also:

• ALMORA

Almora and Garhwal . The economic value of this mountainous tract is almost confined to the export of See also:

• FOREST

forest produce . South of the Himalayas, from which it is separated by valleys or See also:

• DUNS

duns, is the Siwalik range, which slopes down to the fruitful plain of the See also:

• DOAB

Doab (two rivers), a large irregular See also:

• HORN
• HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu; cf. Gr. Kipas)
• HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor, trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno)
• HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742)
• HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT

horn-shaped See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue of land enclosed between the Ganges and Jumna . The great boundary rivers flow through low-lying valleys ertilized by their overflow or percolation, while a high See also:

• BANK

bank leads up to the central upland, which, though naturally dry and unproductive except where irrigated by See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

wells, has been transformed by various See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal systems . This favoured region may be regarded as the granary of upper India . North of the Ganges, and enclosed between that See also:

• RIVER

river and the Himalayas and Oudh, lies the triangular plain of See also:

• ROHILKHAND

Rohilkhand . This tract presents the same general features as the Gangetic valley, varied by the See also:

• DAMP

damp and pestilential submontane region of the See also:

• TARAI, or TERAI (i.e. " moist land ")

tarai on the north-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east, at the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the See also:

• KUMAON

Kumaon hills . South of the Jumna is the poor and backward region of Bundelkhand, comprising the districts of See also:

• JALAUN

Jalaun, See also:

• JHANSI

Jhansi, See also:

• HAMIRPUR

Hamirpur and See also:

• BANDA

Banda . The See also:

• SOIL

soil is generally rocky and unfertile, and, the See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population impoverished, scanty and ignorant .

The southernmost portion of Bundelkhand is much cut up by spurs of See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone and See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite hills, See also:

• RUNNING

running down from the Vindhyan system; but the northern See also:

• HALF

half near the Jumna has a somewhat richer soil, and comes nearer in See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character to the plain of Doab . Below the junction of the Ganges and the Jumna at See also:

• ALLAHABAD

Allahabad the country begins to assume the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of the Bengal plains, and once more expands northwards to the foot of the Nepal Himalayas . This tract consists of three portions, separated by the Ganges and the Gogra . The See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division south of the Ganges comprises portions of Allahabad, See also:

• BENARES

Benares and See also:

• GHAZIPUR

Ghazipur, together with the whole of See also:

• MIRZAPUR

Mirzapur, and in general features somewhat resembles Bundelkhand, but the lowlands along the river bank are more fertile . The triangular tract between the Ganges and the Gogra and the boundary of Oudh is the most fertile corner of the Gangetic plain, and contains the densest population . The trans-Gogra region presents a wilder, submontane appearance . Oudh forms the central portion of the great Gangetic plain, sloping downwards from the Nepal Himalayas in the north-east to the Ganges on the south-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west . For 60 m. along the northern border of See also:

• GONDA

Gonda and See also:

• BAHRAICH

Bahraich districts the boundary extends See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close up to the See also:

• LOWER

lower slopes of the Himalayas, embracing the damp and unhealthy sub-montane region known as the tarai . To the westward of this the northern boundary recedes a little from the See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain tract, and the ',See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm" in this portion of the range has been for the most See also:

• PART

part ceded to Nepal . With the exception of a See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt of See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government forest along the northern frontier, the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the province consists of a fertile and densely peopled plain . The greatest See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation (600 ft.) is attained in the See also:

• JUNGLE (Sans. jangala)

jungle-clad plateau of See also:

• KHAIRAGARH

Khairagarh in See also:

• KHERI

Kheri See also:

• DISTRICT

district, while the extreme south-east frontier is only 230 It. above See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-level . Four great rivers See also:

• TRAVERSE

traverse or skirt the plain of Oudh in converging courses —the Ganges, the Gumti, the Gogra and the Rapti .

Numeroussmaller channels seam the whole See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of the country carrying off the surplus drainage in the rains, but drying up in the hot season . All the larger rivers, except the Gumti, as well as most of the smaller streams, have beds hardly sunk below the general level; and in See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of floods they burst through their See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks and carve out new channels . Numerous shallow ponds or jhils See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark the former beds of the shifting rivers . These jhils have great value, not only as preservatives against inundation, but also as reservoirs for See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation . The soil of Oudh consists of a See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich alluvial See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit, the detritus of the Himalayan system washed down into the Ganges valley . Usually a See also:

• LIGHT

light See also:

• LOAM (O.E. lam; the word appears in Dut. leem and Ger. Lehm; the ultimate origin is the root lai-, meaning " to be sticky," which is seen in the cognate " lime," Lat. limus, mud, clay)

loam, it passes here and there into pure See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay, or degenerates occasionally into barren See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand . The uncultivable land consists chiefly of extensive user plains, found in the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern and western districts, and covered by the deleterious saline efflorescence known as reh . Oudh possesses no valuable minerals . See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

Salt was extensively manufactured during native See also:

• RULE

rule, but the British government has prohibited this See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry for fiscal reasons . Nodular See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone (kankar) occurs in considerable deposits, and is used as road See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal . The villages See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie thickly scattered, consisting of low thatched cottages, and surrounded by patches of See also:

• GARDEN (from O. Fr. garden, mod. Fr. jardin; this, like our words " garth," a paddock attached to a building, and " yard," comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as gards and O. H. Ger. gart, cf. Dutch gaarde and Ger. .garten)

garden land, or groves of See also:

• BANYAN, or BANIAN (an Arab corruption, borrowed by the Portuguese from the Sanskrit vanij, " merchant ")

banyan, pipal and pakar trees . The dense foliage of the See also:

• MANGO

mango marks the site of almost every little See also:

• HOMESTEAD

homestead, no less an area than See also:

• I000

i000 sq. m. being covered by these valuable See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit-trees .

Tamarinds overhang the huts of the poorer classes, while the seat of a wealthy See also:

• FAMILY

family may be recognized by cluanps of See also:

• BAMBOO

bamboo . Plantains, guavas, See also:

• JACK

jack-fruit, limes and oranges add further beauty to the See also:

• VILLAGE

village plots . The See also:

• FLORA

flora of the government reserved forests is rich and varied . The sal See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree yields the most important See also:

• TIMBER

timber; the finest logs are cut in the Khairagarh jungles and floated down the Gogra to Bahramghat, where they are sawn . The hard See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood of the shisham is also valuable; and several other timber-trees afford materials for See also:

• FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir)

furniture or roofing See also:

• SHINGLE

shingle . Among the scattered jungles in various parts of the province, the mahua tree is prized alike for its edible See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers, its fruits and its timber . The jhils See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply the villages with See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice, the roots and seeds of the See also:

• LOTUS

lotus, and the singhara See also:

• WATER

water-See also:

• NUT
• NUT (0. Eng. knutu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss; allied with Gael. cno; it is not of the same form as Lat. nux)

nut . The See also:

• FAUNA

fauna comprises most of the animals and birds See also:

• COMMON

common to the Gangetic plain; but the wild See also:

• ELEPHANT

elephant is now practically unknown, except when a stray specimen loses its way at the foot of the hills . Tigers are now only found in any See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers in the wilds of Khairagarh . Leopards still haunt the See also:

• CANE

cane-brakes and thickets along the banks of the rivers; and See also:

• NILGAI, or NYLGHAU (" blue bull ")

nilgai and antelopes abound . See also:

• GAME

Game birds consist of See also:

• TEAL (O.E. tele)

teal and wild See also:

• DUCK

duck, See also:

• SNIPE (0. Eng. Spite, Icel. Snipe, Dutch Snip, Ger. Schnepfe)

snipe, jungle See also:

• FOWL (Dan. Fugl, Ger. Vogel)

fowl and See also:

• PEACOCK (Lat. Pavo, O. Eng. Pawe, Du. pauuw, Ger. Pfau, Fr. Paon)
• PEACOCK, GEORGE (1791–1858)
• PEACOCK, SIR BARNES (1810-189o)
• PEACOCK, THOMAS LOVE (1785-1866)

peacock . Rivers.—The Ganges and its affluents, the Jumna, the Ramganga and the Gogra, rise in the Himalayas, and meet within the province .

In addition there are the following secondary streams: the Kalinadi and the Hindan flow through the Doab ; the See also:

• CHAMBAL

Chambal intersects the trans-Jumna tract; in Bundelkhand the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal streams are the See also:

• BETWA

Betwa and the See also:

• KEN
• KEN, THOMAS (1637-1711)

Ken; the Ramgana, rising in Garhwal, pursues a tortuous course through Rohilkhand; the Gumti flows past See also:

• LUCK

Luck-now and See also:

• JAUNPUR

Jaunpur to join the Ganges; the trans-Gogra, region is divided into two nearly equal parts by the Rapti . These rivers are constantly modifying the adjacent lands . A small obstruction may divert the stream from one See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side to the other . The deep stream corrodes and cuts down the high ground; but meanwhile alluvial flats are gradually piled up in the shallows . The tributary streams get choked at the mouth and assist the See also:

• PROCESS

process of deposition . The deposit is greatest when the floods of the See also:

• RAINY, ROBERT (1826-1906)

rainy season are sub-siding . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—The climate as a whole is hot and dry . The Himalayan districts of course are cool, and have a much greater rainfall than the plains . They are succeeded by a broad submontane belt, the tarai, which is rendered moist by the mountain torrents, and is covered by forest from end to end . This region bears the reputation of being the most unhealthy in all India, and in many parts only the acclimatized See also:

• ABORIGINES

aborigines can withstand its deadly See also:

• MALARIA

malaria . The plain country is generally warm and dry, the See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat becoming more oppressive as the general level of the country sinks towards Allahabad and Benares, or among the hills of Bundelkhand . There are three seasons .

The See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold changes gradually to the hot ; the hot season See also:

• FIVES

Fives way abruptly to the .rains ; and the rains again See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change gradually into the cold season . In point of humidity and temperature the province lies half-way between Bengal and the Punjab . The rainfall varies from 30 to 44 in. in the plains, increasing gradually towards the See also:

• HIMALAYA

Himalaya . The temperature in the hot season ranges from 86° to 115° F., and even higher, in the shade . Minerals.—Owing to the loamy nature of the soil, few minerals of any See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind are found . See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

Iron and See also:

• COAL

coal exist in the southern hills . A little coal was extracted from Mirzapur in 1896, but the enterprise was dropped . Iron, See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper, sapphires, &c., are said to be obtain-able in the Himalaya . It has been suggested that the oily water known as telya Irani indicates the presence of See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum . See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture.—Out of a total area of 104,075 sq. m, in the British districts of the province, over 54,000 sq. m. are under cultivation . The course of tillage comprises two principal harvests: the kharif, or autumn crops, sown in See also:

• JUNE

June and reaped in See also:

• OCTOBER

October or See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November; and the rabi, or See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring crops, sown in October or November, and reaped in See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March or See also:

• APRIL

April . The great agricultural See also:

• STAPLE

staple is wheat, but millets and rice are also largely cultivated .

Speaking broadly, rice and oilseeds predominate in the eastern and sub-Himalayan districts, millets and See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton in Bundelkhand and wheat in the greater part of the Gangetic plain . The pulses mung, urd and See also:

• MOTH

moth are grown generally in the autumn alone, or in See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination with millets; and See also:

• GRAM

gram, alone or in combination with wheat and See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley, is an important spring See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop . See also:

• SUGAR

Sugar-cane, See also:

• INDIGO (earlier indico, from Lat. indicum, the Indian sub-stance or dye; the Sans. name was niti, from nila, dark blue, and this through Arab. al-nil, annil, gives " aniline ")

indigo, See also:

• POPPY

poppy and See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco are locally important; and a little See also:

• TEA (Chinese cha, Amoy dialect t€)

tea is grown in the submontane districts of Almora Garhwal and Dehra Dun . Land See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

Tenure.—Owing to See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical reasons, the system of land tenure is not See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform . In the Benares division, which was the first portion to come under British See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration, the land See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue was permanently fixed in 1795, on the same principles that had been previously adopted in Bengal; and there a See also:

• SPECIAL

special class of tenants, as well as the landlords, enjoy a privileged status . Throughout the rest of the province of See also:

• AGRA

Agra, almost all of which was acquired between i8oi and 1803, temporary settlements are in force, usually for a See also:

• TERM

term of See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years, the revenue being assessed at one-half of the " See also:

• ASSETS (from the O. Nor. Fr. assetz, mod. Fr. asset, " enough")

assets " or estimated rental value . The See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement is made with the landholders or zamindars, who are frequently a See also:

• GROUP

group of persons holding distinct shares in the land, and may be themselves See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty cultivators . No proprietary rights See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior to those of the actual landowners are recognized . The only privileged class of tenants are those possessing " occupancy " rights, as defined by See also:

• STATUTE

statute . These rights, which are heritable but not transferable, protect the See also:

• TENANT (from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenant against eviction, except for See also:

• DEFAULT (Fr. defaut, from defailler, to fail, Lat. fallere)

default in See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of See also:

• RENT

rent, while the rent may not be enhanced except by mutual agreement or by See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of a revenue See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court . " Occupancy " rights are acquired by continuous cultivation for ten years, but the cultivation need not be of the same holding . All other tenants are merely tenants-at-will .

In Oudh, after the convulsion of the See also:

• MUTINY
• MUTINY (from an old verb " mutine," O. Fr. mutin, meutin, a sedition; cf. mod. Fr. emeute; the original is the Late Lat. mota, commotion, from movere, to move)

Mutiny, all rights in land were confiscated at a stroke, and the new system adopted was in the nature of a treaty between the state and the talukdars, or great landlords . These talukdars had not all the same origin . Many were See also:

• RAJPUT

Rajput chiefs, ruling over their tribesmen by See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient hereditary right; while others were officials or court favourites, who had acquired See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power and See also:

• PROPERTY

property during the long See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of native See also:

• MISRULE, LORD OF

misrule . On all the same status was now conferred—a status that has no See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy in the rest of India . By sanad (or patent) and by legislation the talukdars were declared to possess permanent, heritable and transferable rights, with the special See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege of See also:

• ALIENATION (from Lat. alienus, belonging to another)

alienation, either in lifetime or by will, notwithstanding the limits imposed by See also:

• HINDU

Hindu or Mahommedan See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law . In addition mist of them follow the rule of See also:

• PRIMOGENITURE

primogeniture, while a power of See also:

• ENTAIL (from Fr. tailler, to cut; the old derivation from tales haeredes is now abandoned)

entail has recently been granted . The estates of talukdars extend over more than half the total area of Oudh . No " occupancy " rights based on continuous cultivation are recognized in Oudh, but similar rights, here known as " sub-proprietary," were granted to all those who had possessed them within thirty years before See also:

• ANNEXATION (Lat. ad, to, and nexus, joining)

annexation . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, there are no tenants-at-right in Oudh . Any See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person admitted to the cultivation of land is entitled to hold it for seven years at the same rent, which may not be advanced by more than 6; °o at the end of the term . Manufactures.—The principal manufactures are those of sugar, indigo and coarse cotton See also:

• CLOTH

cloth . Ornamental metal-See also:

• WORK

work is made at Benares .

Among the factories on the See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model are the See also:

• ELGIN

Elgin and See also:

• MUIR, JOHN (1810-1882)
• MUIR, SIR WILLIAM (1819-1905)

Muir cotton See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills at See also:

• CAWNPORE, or KANPUR

Cawnpore, the Cawnpore tanneries and See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather factories, the See also:

• SHAHJAHANPUR

Shahjahanpur See also:

• RUM
• RUM (according to Skeat, a corruption of Malay brum or bram; the adjective " rum," i.e. " queer," being a distinct word, in Gipsy rem)

rum distillery, and breweries at See also:

• MUSSOORIE, or MASURI

Mussoorie and Naini Tal . There are also woollen and jute mills, iron and See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass foundries, See also:

• LAC

lac factories and oil-mills . The manufacture of synthetic indigo by See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German chemists has greatly affected the growth and manufacture of indigo, the indigo factories decreasing in 1904–1905 from 402 to 252 . See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

Trade: The export trade is chiefly confined to agricultural produce . The principal staples include wheat, oilseeds, raw cotton, indigo, sugar, See also:

• MOLASSES

molasses, timber and forest produce, dry-stuffs, See also:

• GHEE (Hindostani ghi)

ghee, See also:

• OPIUM (Gr. amov, dim. from Orbs, juice)

opium and tobacco . The imports consist mainly of English piece-goods, metal-work, manufactured wares, salt and See also:

• EUROPEAN

European goods . The chief centres of trade are Cawnpore, Allahabad, Mirzapur, Benares, See also:

• MEERUT

Meerut and See also:

• MORADABAD

Moradabad . Irrigation.—The Doab is intersected by canals See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from the great rivers . The See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

major productive See also:

• WORKS

works are the upper and lower Ganges, the eastern Jumna, and the Agra canals . The greatest work in the province, and one of the greatest irrigation works in the See also:

• WORLD

world, is the upper Ganges canal, which is taken from the river where it leaves the hills, some 2 M. above See also:

• HARDWAR, or HURDWAR

Hardwar . In the first 20 m. of its course this gigantic canal crosses four great torrents, which bring down immense volumes of water in the rainy season . The first two are carried in massive aqueducts over the canal, the third is passed through the canal by a level-See also:

• CROSSING

crossing, regulated by drop-See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

gates, and the canal is taken over the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth by an See also:

• AQUEDUCT (Lat. aqua, water, and ducere, to lead; Gr. apaymryeiov, apayeeywov, vlrovopos)

aqueduct .

The total length of ,the main canal is 213 m., navigable through-out, and designed to irrigate 1,500,000 acres . The lower Ganges canal is taken from the river at Narora, 149 M. below Hardwar . After crossing in 55 M. four great drainage lines, it cuts into the Cawnpore, and 7 M. lower down into the See also:

• ETAWAH

Etawah, branches of the upper Ganges canal . These branches are now below the point of intersection, part of the lower Ganges canal system . The irrigating capacity of this canal is 1,250,000 acres . See also:

• RAILWAYS

Railways.—The province is well supplied with railways . The main See also:

• LINE

line of the East See also:

• INDIAN

Indian runs throughout south of the Ganges, which is bridged at Benares and Cawnpore . North of the riverthe Oudh & Rohilkhand system connects with Bengal and with the Punjab . From Allahabad, Cawnpore and Agra trade finds an outlet to the sea at Bombay as well as at See also:

• CALCUTTA

Calcutta . Administration.—The administration is conducted by a lieutenant-governor, with five secretaries and five under-secretaries . There is no executive See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council; but the See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board of revenue, consisting of two members, exercises important executive duties, and is also the highest court of See also:

• APPEAL

appeal in revenue and rent cases . For legislative purposes the lieutenant-governor has a council, first constituted in 1886, and enlarged in 1909 .

It now consists of 48 members, of whom 28 are nominated, and the remainder are elected by See also:

• LOCAL

local bodies, landholders, Mahommedans, &c . In Agra the chartered high court sitting at Allahabad, and in Oudh the court of the judicial See also:

• COMMISSIONER

commissioner, sitting at See also:

• LUCKNOW

Lucknow, have final See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction in both 'See also:

• CIVIL

civil and criminal cases, subject to appeal to the privy council . The former is composed of a chief See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice and six See also:

• PUISNE (from O. Fr. puisne, modern puine, later born, inferior; Lat. postea, afterwards, and natus, born)

puisne See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges appointed by the See also:

• CROWN

Crown; the latter of a judicial commissioner and two additional judicial commissioners . For See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary purposes of administration the provinces are divided into nine divisions, each under a commissioner, and into 48 districts, each under a See also:

• COLLECTOR

collector or See also:

• DEPUTY (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of deputare, to cut off, allot; putare having the original sense of to trim, prune)

deputy commissioner . Two native states are attached to the United Provinces—See also:

• RAMPUR

Rampur and Garhwal . Population.—Out of a total population in 1901 of 47,691,782 no fewer than 40,691,818, or over 85% were See also:

• HINDUS

Hindus, and 6,731,034 or 14% Mahommedans . The total number of persons belonging to all the other religions—Sikhs, See also:

• JAINS

Jains, Buddhists, See also:

• PARSEES, or PARSIS

Parsees, Christians, See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews, Aryas and Brahmoswas only 268,930, or less than o.6% . While nearly fifty See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages in all are spoken in the provinces, out of every 1o,00d See also:

• PEOPLE

people 4527 speak Western See also:

• HINDI, EASTERN
• HINDI, WESTERN

Hindi, 3125 Eastern Hindi, 2109 See also:

• BIHARI (properly Bih(iri)

Bihari and 211 Central See also:

• PAHARI (properly Pahari, the language of the mountains)

Pahari . See also:

• HISTORY

History.—If the See also:

• PRESENT

present limits be slightly extended in either direction so as to include See also:

• DELHI, DEHLI

Delhi and See also:

• PATNA

Patna, the United Provinces would contain the area on which almost the whole See also:

• DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. Snail, act or do)

drama of Indian history has been played . Here See also:

• LAY

lay the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene, known as Madhya Desa or See also:

• MIDDLE

middle country," of the second period of See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan colonization, when the two great epics, the Mahabadrata and Ramayana, were probably composed, and when the See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion of See also:

• BRAHMANISM

Brahmanism took See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form . Here See also:

• BUDDHA

Buddha was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born, preached and died . Here arose .the successive dynasties of •See also:

• ASOKA

Asoka, of the Guptas, and of Harshavardhana, which for a thousand years exercised imperial sway over the greater part of India .

Here is See also:

• AJODHYA

Ajodhya, the See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home of Rama, the most popular of Hindu demigods; and also Benares and See also:

• MUTTRA, or MATHURA

Muttra, the most sacred of Hindu shrines . Here too were the Mahommedan capitals—Delhi, Agra, Allahabad, Jaunpur and Lucknow . Here finally, at the crisis of the Mutiny, British dominion was permanently established in India . The See also:

• POLITICAL

political vicissitudes through which this tract of country passed in earlier times are described under INDIA: History . It will be sufficient here to trace the steps by which it passed under British rule . In 1765, after the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of See also:

• BUXAR, or BAXAR

Buxar, when the See also:

• NAWAB

nawab of Oudh had been decisively defeated and Shah Alam, the See also:

• MOGUL, MOCHAL, or MIGHAL

Mogul See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor, was a suppliant in the British See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp, See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord See also:

• CLIVE, CAROLINE (1801-1873)
• CLIVE, CATHERINE [KITTY] (1711-1785)
• CLIVE, ROBERT CLIVE, BARON (1725-1774)

Clive was content to claim no acquisition of territory . The whole of Oudh was restored to the Nawab, and Shah Alam received as an imperial apanage the province of Allahabad and See also:

• KORA, or CORA

Kora in the lower Doab, with a British See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison in the fort of Allahabad . See also:

• WARREN
• WARREN, GOUVERNEUR KEMBLE (183o-1882)
• WARREN, JOSEPH (1741—1775)
• WARREN, MERCY (1728—1814)
• WARREN, MINTON (1850-1907)
• WARREN, SAMUEL (1807-1877)
• WARREN, SIR JOHN BORLASE, BART
• WARREN, WILLIAM (1812-1888)

Warren See also:

• HASTINGS
• HASTINGS, FRANCIS
• HASTINGS, FRANK ABNEY (1794-1828)
• HASTINGS, WARREN (1732-1818)

Hastings augmented the territory of Oudh by lending the nawab a British See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army to conquer Rohilkhand, and by making over to him Allahabad and Kora on the ground that Shah Alam had placed himself in the power of the See also:

• MAHRATTAS

Mahrattas . At the same time he received from Oudh the See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty over the province of Benares . Subsequently no great change took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place until the arrival of Lord See also:

• WELLESLEY
• WELLESLEY, RICHARD COLLEY WESLEY (or WELLESLEY)

Wellesley, who acquired a very large See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession of territory in two instalments . In 18o1 he obtained from the nawab of Oudh the cession of Rohilkhand, the lower Doab, and the See also:

• GORAKHPUR

Gorakhpur division, thus enclosing Oudh on all sides except the north . In 1804, as the result of Lord See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake's victories in the Mahratta See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War, the rest of the Doab and part of Bundelkhand, together with Agra and the guardianship of the old and See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind emperor, Shah Alam, at Delhi, were obtained from Sindia .

In 1815 the Kumaon division was acquired after the See also:

• GURKHA (pronounced goorka; from Sans. gau, a cow, and raks, to protect)

Gurkha War, and a further portion of Bundelkhand from the See also:

• PESHWA (Persian for " leader," " guide ")

pesh