See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

VENICE (Venezia)  , a See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city and seaport of See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, occupying one of the most remarkable sites in the See also:

• WORLD

world.' At the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the Adriatic, between the mountains and' the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, lies that See also:

• PART

part of the Lombard See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain known as the Veneto . The whole of this plain has been formed by the debris swept down from the See also:

• ALPS

Alps by the See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers Po, See also:

• TICINO (Fr. and Ger. Tessin)
• TICINO (Ger. Tessin, anc. Ticinus)

Ticino, Oglio, See also:

• ADDA (anc. Addua)

Adda, Mincio, See also:

• ADIGE (Ger. Etsch, anc. Athesis)

Adige, Brenta, Piave, Livenza, Tagliamento and Isonzo . The substratum of the plain is a See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed of boulders, covered during the See also:

• LAPSE (Lat. lapses, a slip or departure)

lapse of ages by a See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit of See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich alluvial See also:

• SOIL

soil . The rivers when they debouch from the mountains assume an eastern trend in their effort to reach the sea . The result is that the plain is being gradually extended in an easterly direction, and cities like See also:

• RAVENNA
• RAVENNA, EXARCHATE OF

Ravenna, See also:

• ADRIA (anc. Atria; the form Adria or Hadria is less correct: Hatria was a town in Picenum, the modern Atri)

Adria and See also:

• AQUILEIA

Aquileia, which were once seaports, See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie now many See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles inland . The encroachment of See also:

• LAND

land on sea has been calculated at the See also:

• RATE

rate of about three miles in a thousand years . A strong current sets See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the head of the Adriatic from See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east to See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west . This current catches the silt brought down by the rivers and projects it in See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks, or lidi, parallel with the See also:

• SHORE

shore . In See also:

• PROCESS

process of See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time some of these banks, as in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice, raised ; themselves above the level of the See also:

• WATER

water and became the true shore-See also:

• LINE

line, while behind them See also:

• LAY

lay large surfaces of water, called lagoons, formed partly by the fresh water brought down by the rivers, partly by the See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt-water See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide which found its way in by the channels of the See also:

• RIVER

river mouths . Along the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast-line, roughly speaking between the See also:

• APENNINES (Gr. 'A1T- vvLvos, Lat. Appenninus—in both cases used in the singular)

Apennines at See also:

• RIMINI

Rimini and the Carnic Alps at See also:

• TRIESTE (Ger. Triest; Slay. Trst; the Roman Tergeste, q.v.)

Trieste, three See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main systems of lagoons were thus created, the See also:

• LAGOON (Fr. lagune, Lat. lacuna, a pool)

lagoon of See also:

• GRADO

Grado or See also:

• MARANO (accursed or banned)

Marano to the east, the lagoon of Venice in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle, and the lagoon, of See also:

• COMACCHIO

Comacchio to the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-west (for See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan, see See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

HARBOUR) . All three are dotted with small islands, possibly the remains of some earlier lido . These islands are little else than See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low mud banks, barely rising above the water-level..; .

On a See also:

• GROUP

group of these mud banks about the middle of the lagoon of Venice stands the city of Venice . It would be difficult to imagine a site less adapted for the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation and growth of a See also:

• GREAT

great community . The 'soil is an oozy mud which can only be made capable of carryipg buildings by the artificial means of See also:

• PILE

pile-See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving; there is no land See also:

• FIT

fit for See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture or the rearing of See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle; the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply is, See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish from the lagoon, and there is no drinking-water See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save such as could be stored from the rainfall . Yet the group of islands called Rialto, in See also:

• MID

mid-Venetian lagoon, were first the See also:

• ASYLUM (from Gr. b.-, privative, arid earl, right'of seizure)
• ASYLUM, RIGHT OF (Fr. droit d'asile; Ger. Asylrecht)

asylum and then the magnificent and permanent See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home of a ' See also:

• RACE

race that took a prominent part in the See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval and See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance See also:

• HISTORY

history of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . The See also:

• LOCAL

local drawbacks and difficulties once surmounted, Venice by her See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical position became the seaport nearest the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of Europe . Ethnography and See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early History.—As to the ethnography of the race little is known that is certain . It has frequently been said that the lagoon See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population was originally composed of refugees from the mainland seeking asylum from the incursions of See also:

• HUNS

Huns, Goths and See also:

• LOMBARDS, or LANGOBARDI

Lombards; but it is more probable that, long before the date of the earliest See also:

• BARBARIAN (Gr. fap/3apos)

barbarian inroad, the lagoon islands already had a population of fisherfolk . In any case we may take it that the lagoon-dwellers were racially identical with the inhabitants of the neighbouring mainland, the Heneti or See also:

• VENETI

Veneti . That the Heneti themselves were immigrants is generally admitted . The earlier ethnographers, like See also:

• STRABO (born c. 63 n.c.)

Strabo, put forward three theories as to the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original home of the race . Strabo himself talks of Arnioric Heneti, and supposes them to have come from the neighbourhood of See also:

• BRITTANY

Brittany; another theory gives us Sarmatian Heneti, from the Baltic provinces; while the most widely accepted view was that they reached Italy from See also:

• PAPHLAGONIA

Paphlagonia . See also:

• MODERN

Modern scholarship has rejected these theories .

See also:

• PAULI, REINHOLD (1823-1882)

Pauli and Kretschmer, proceeding on the basis of See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, have reached conclusions which in the main are identical . Pauli, who. has published all the known See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions of the Heneti, holds that the language is Illyrian, closely connected with Messapian . Kretschmer goes further and divides the Illyrian language into two sharply defined dialects the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect being represented by the Heneti . The result is that in the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of our knowledge we must conclude that the Heneti. were a See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Illyrian See also:

• PEOPLE

people. the Enetiof Paphlagonia, the Veneti of Brittany and the Venedi of the Baltic, are probably quite distinct, and the similarity of name is merely a coincidence . The dwellings of the See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive settlers in the lagoons were, in all See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability, See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude huts made of long reeds, such as may be seen to this See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day in the lagoon.of Grado . A ditch was cut deep into the mud so as to retain the water at low tide, and there the boats of the fishermen lay . The ground about the hut was made solid and protected from corrosion by a palisade of wattled osiers, thus creating the earliest See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of the Fonda= menta, or See also:

• QUAY
• QUAY, MATTHEW STANLEY (1833-1904)

quay, which runs along the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of so many Venetian canals and is so prominent a feature in the construction of the city . Gradually, as time went on, and probably with the influx of refugees from the mainland, bricks made of lagoon mud came to take the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of wattle and reeds in the construction of the houses . See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

Groups' ' of dwellings, such as are still to be seen on some of the small canals at Buraho, clustered together along the 'banks of the deeper channels which See also:

• TRAVERSE

traverse the lagoon islands and give See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to the tide . It is' these channels which determined the lines of construction; the dwellings followed their windings, and that accounts for the extraordinarily complex network of calles and canals. which characterizes modern Venice . The alleys Or calli number 2327, with a See also:

• TOTAL

total length of 891 m.; the canals number 177 and measure 28m . The whole site of Venice is dominated by the existence of one great' main See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal, the See also:

• GRAND

Grand Canal, which; winding through the See also:

• TOWN

town in the shape of the See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter S, divides it into two egdal parts .

This great canal was probably at one time the bed of a river flowing into the lagoons near Mestre . The smaller canals all serve as See also:

• ARTERIES (Gr. ap-rnpia, probably from a"spew, to raise, but popularly connected by the ancients with ai7P, air)

arteries to the' Grand Canal . One other broad' canal, once the bed of the Brenta, divides the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of the, Giudecca from the •See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the city and, takes its narue from that island . The See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary Venetian See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house was built round a courtyard, and was one See also:

• STOREY (equivalents are Fr. etage, Ital. piano, Ger. Stock)

storey high; on the roof was an open loggia for drying clothes; in front, between the house and the 'water, ran the fondamenta . The earliest churches were built with' cemeteries for the dead; and thus we find the See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus of the' city of Venice, little isolated groups of dwellings each on its See also:

• SEPARATE

separate islet, scattered, as'See also:

• CASSIODORUS (not Cassiodorius)

Cassiodorus 1 says, 'like sea-birds' nests over the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of the See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters . Some Of the islets were still uninhabited;, covered with a dense low growth which served as See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover 'for gatne and even for wolves . With "the destruction of. the mainland cities by repeated barbarian invasions; and thanks to the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual development of Venice as a centre'of See also:

• COASTING

coasting See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade in the-northern Adriatic, the aspect of the city changed . See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

Brick and more rarely See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone took the place of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood and wattle . The assaults of the Dalmatian pirates, attracted by the growing See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of the city, necessitated the See also:

• BUILDING

building of strong castellated houses; of which no example has come down to our day, but we may gather what they were like from See also:

• PETRARCH (1304-1374)

Petrarch's description of his house on the' See also:

• RIVA

Riva degli Schiavoni, with its two flanking towers, probably retaining the primitive' form, and also from the representations of protecting towers which' occur in See also:

• CARPACCIO, VITTORIO, or VITTORE (c. 1465-c. 1522)

Carpaccio's pictures . The canals too were guarded by chains stretched across their mouths and by towers in some cases, as, for ex. ample, in the case of the' Torresella 'Canal, which takes its name from these See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence See also:

• WORKS

works . These houses clustered round the churches which now began to be built in considerable nuhrbers, and formed the various contrade of the city . ' The Cron'ca altinate in the See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision of Fra Mauro gives us a picturesque See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of , the See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding of the various parishes, ''Olivolo or See also:

• CASTELLO, BERNARDO (1557—1629)
• CASTELLO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1500 ?–1569 ?)
• CASTELLO, VALERIO (1625-1659)

Castello, St Raffaello, St Salvadore, Sta Maria See also:

• FORMOSA
• FORMOSA (called Taiwan by the Chinese, and following them by the Japanese, into whose possession it came after their war with China in 1895)

Formosa; 'S .

Giovanni in Bragora, the Apostoliand Sta Giustina . Tradition has it that the earliest See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church in Venice was S . Giacomo di Rialto, 1 Secretary to See also:

• THEODORIC

Theodoric'the-Great, in a letter dated A.D . 523 . said to have been founded in 432 . The canals between these dusters of houses were deepened and cleared out, and in some cases trees were planted along the banks, or fondamenta; we hear of the cypresses on See also:

• SAN

San Giorgio See also:

• MAGGIORE, LAGO (Lacus Verbanus of the Romans; Fr. Lac Majeur; Ger. Langensee)

Maggiore,. of an See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient mulberry See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree at San Salvadore, of a great See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

elder tree near the Procuratie Vecchie where the magistrates were wont to tie their horses . There were vineyards and orchards (See also:

• BRAN

bran) on land reclaimed from the sea, and lying between the various clusters of houses, which had not yet been consolidated into one continuous city . The canals were, crossed by wooden See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

bridges without steps, and in the case of the wide Grand Canal the See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge at Rialto was carried on boats . Gradually, how-ever, stone bridges came into use . The earliest of these was the bridge of San Zaccaria, mentioned in a document of 1170 . The Rialto bridge was designed in 1178 by Nicolo Barattieri, and was carried on pontoons . In 1255 and 1264 it was rebuilt, still in wood .

It was carried on beams and could be raised in the middle, as we see it in Carpaccio's picture of " The See also:

• MIRACLE (Lat. miraculum, from mirari, to wonder)

Miracle of the See also:

• CROSS

Cross." The present bridge, the See also:

• WORK

work of See also:

• ANTONIO
• ANTONIO (1429—1498)
• ANTONIO, NICOLAS (1617-1684)

Antonio or Giovanni Contino, whose See also:

• NICKNAME

nickname was da See also:

• PONTE (Ital. for " bridge ")

Ponte, See also:

• DATES

dates from 1588-q I, and cost 250,000 ducats . The same architect was responsible for the lofty " Bridge of Sighs " (1595-16o5), connecting the ducal See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace with the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state prisons (1591-97) on the opposite side of the narrow canal on the east of the Rio del Palazzo . The early bridges were inclined planes and could easily be crossed by horses . It was not till the city became more populous and when stone-stepped bridges were introduced that the use of horses died out . As See also:

• LATE

late as 1365 the See also:

• DOGE

Doge Lorenzo, Celsi owned a famous See also:

• STUD

stud of chargers, and in 1490 the Doge Michele See also:

• STENO, NICOLAUS (1631-1686)

Steno's stables, where the present Zecca stands, were famous throughout Italy . In 1392 a See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law put an end to See also:

• RIDING

riding in the Merceria, on account of the See also:

• CROWD, CROUTH, CROWTH

crowd, and all horses and mules were obliged to carry bells to warn See also:

• FOOT

foot-passengers . The lanes and alleys of the early city were unpaved and filthy with slops from the houses . But in the r3th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century the Venetians began to pave the more frequented streets with brick . Ferries or traghetti for See also:

• CROSSING

crossing the canals were also established as early as the 13th century; we find See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of ferries at 'San Gregorio, San Felice, San Toma, San Samuele, and so on, and also of longer ferries to the outlying islands like See also:

• MURANO (anc. Ammariuno)

Murano and See also:

• CHIOGGIA

Chioggia, or to. the mainland at Mestre and Fusing . The boatmen early erected themselves into See also:

• GILDS, or GUILDS

gilds . Gondolas.—The characteristic conveyances on the canals of Venice—which take the place of cabs. in other cities--are the gondolas, See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat-bottomed beats, some 30 ft. long by 4 or 5 ft. wide, curving out of the water at the ends, with ornamental See also:

• BOW (pronounced " bo ")

bow and stern pieces and an See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron See also:

• BEAK (early forms beke and becke, from Fr. bec, late Lat. beccus, supposed to be a Gaulish word; the Celtic bec and beq, however, are taken from the English)

beak (See also:

• FERN (from O. Eng. fearn, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch varen, and Ger. Farn; the Indo-European root, seen in the Sanskrit parna, a feather, shows the primary meaning; cf. Gr. rmep6 , feather, rTepis, fern)

fern)), resembling a halberd, which is the highest part of the See also:

• BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)

boat . The gondolier stands on a poppa at the stern with his face towards the bow, and propels the gondola with a single See also:

• OAR (A.S. kr; M. Eng. ore; Lat. remus; Gr. iperw5s : Sans. aritra; Fr. rame; Ital. Span., Port. Yana)

oar .

There is a low See also:

• CABIN

cabin (felze) for passengers; the ordinary gondolas can take four or six persons, and larger ones (See also:

• BARCA (mod. Merj)

barca or battello) take eight . Gondolas are mentioned as far back as 1094, and, See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

prior to a sumptuary See also:

• EDICT (Lat. edictum, from e, out, and dicere, to say, speak)

edict passed by the great See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council in the 16th century, making See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black their compulsory See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour, they were very different in See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance from now . Instead of the present boat, with its heavy black cabin and See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of colouring, the older forms had an awning of rich stuffs or See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold embroideries, sup-ported on a See also:

• LIGHT

light arched framework open at both ends;, this is • the gondola still seen in Carpaccio's and See also:

• GENTILE
• GENTILE, C

Gentile See also:

• BELLINI
• BELLINI, LORENZO (1643-1704)
• BELLINI, VINCENZO (1801--18J5)

Bellini's pictures (c . 1500) . Since 188o services of See also:

• OMNIBUS (Lat. " for all ")

omnibus steamers (now municipal) have also been introduced . See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

Architecture.—We can trace the continuous growth of Venice through the successive styles of Byzantine, See also:

• GOTHIC

Gothic, early Renaissance and late Renaissance architecture . The whole subject is magnificently treated in See also:

• RUSKIN, JOHN (1819-1goo)

Ruskin's Stones of Venice . The two most striking buildings in Venice, St See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

Mark's and, the Doge's Palace, at once give us an example of the two earlier styles, the Byzantine and the Gothic, at least in their See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design, though both are so capricious in development and in decoration that they may more justly be See also:

• CON

con-sidered as unique specimens rather than as typical examples of their respective styles, . In truth, owing to its isolated position on the very See also:

• VERGE (Lat. virga, a rod)

verge of Italy, and to its See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close connexion with the East, Venetian architecture was an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent development . Though displaying a preponderance of See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental characteristics, it retained a quality of its own quite unlike the styles evolved by other Western countries . The Byzantine See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style prevailed in Venice during the See also:

• FIRTH, CHARLES HARDING (1857– )
• FIRTH, MARK (1819-1880)

firth and 12th centuries . The See also:

• ARCHES, COURT OF

arches of. this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period are semicircular and usually highly See also:

• STILTED

stilted .

Sculptured ornamentation, flowing See also:

• SCROLL

scroll-work of semi-conventional foliage mingled with See also:

• GROTESQUE

grotesque animals, birds or dragons; is freely applied to arches and See also:

• STRING

string courses . The walls are built of solid See also:

• BRICKWORK

brickwork and then covered with thin slabs of rich and costly See also:

• MARBLES

marbles . Sculptured panels, with conventional motives, peacocks, eagles devouring See also:

• HARES

hares, peacocks drinking from a See also:

• CUP (in O.E. cuppe; generally taken to be from Late Lat. cuppa, a variant of Lat. cupa, a cask, cf. Gr. KuaeXXov)

cup on a tall See also:

• PILLAR (0. Fr. piler, Mod. pilier, Late Lat. pilare, from pila, column)

pillar, are let into both exterior and interior walls, as are roundels of See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious marbles, sawn from columns of See also:

• PORPHYRY (IlopcPisptos) (A.D. 233-c. 304)

porphyry, See also:

• SERPENTINE

serpentine, verd See also:

• ANTIQUE (Lat. antiquus, old)

antique, &c . The See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of See also:

• VENEER

veneer for decoration prohibited any deep cutting, and almost all the See also:

• SCULPTURE
• SCULPTURE (Lat. sculptura, from sculpere, to carve, cognate with Gr. yXb4ew)

sculpture is shallow . Only in the capitals, which are of extraordinary richness and variety, do we get any deep or bold See also:

• RELIEF

relief . See also:

• DENTIL (from Lat. dens, a tooth)

Dentil See also:

• MOULDINGS

mouldings, of which examples may still be seen in the remains of the palace of Blachernae at See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople, are characteristic of Venetian ornamentation at this period, and remain a permanent feature in Venetian architecture down to the 11th century . The See also:

• DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral)

dome is the leading See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea or motif in Byzantine ecclesiastical architecture; the domes are placed over square, not circular apartments, and their bases are brought, to a circle by means of pendentives .. In exterior See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief effect is produced by the grouping of the domes . In the interior the effect is gained by broad masses of See also:

• CHROMATIC (Gr. xpcoµaruc6s, coloured, from xpwµa, colour)

chromatic decoration in See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble-veneer and mosaics on a gold ground to cover the walls and vaults, and by elaborate pavements of See also:

• OPUS ('O7rois)

opus sectile and . opus Alexandrinum . Owing to the ,marshy site the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations of buildings in Venice offered considerable difficulties . A See also:

• TRENCH, RICHARD CHENEVIX (1807-1886)

trench was dug in the soft upper mud until the stratum of stiff See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay was reached . Piles of See also:

• ELM

elm, See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak, See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

poplar or See also:

• LARCH (from the Ger. Larche, M.H.G. Lerche, Lat. larix)

larch were driven into this clay to the See also:

• DEPTH

depth of 16 to 20 ft. or until See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute resistance was encountered .

The heads of the piles were from 10 to 11 in. in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter and they were driven in almost in contact . On this See also:

• SURFACE

surface of pile heads was laid a See also:

• PLATFORM (Fr. plateforme, i.e. ground plan)

platform of two layers of squared oak beams; and on this again the foundations proper were built . In some cases, however, as for example in the ducal palace itself, if the clay appeared sufficiently See also:

• FIRM

firm, the piles were dispensed with and the foundations went up directly from the oak platform which rested immediately on the clay . During the middle ages the walls of Venetian buildings were constructed invariably of brick . They were usually solid, 'but in some cases they were built a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man--that is to say, two thin See also:

• OUTER

outer walls were built and the space between them was filled with grouted See also:

• RUBBLE

rubble . The delicate creamy Istrian stone, which is now so prominent a feature in Venetian architecture, did not come into See also:

• COMMON

common use till after the 'I rth century, when the Istrian coast became permanently Venetian . Before 1405 the See also:

• MORTAR

mortar used in Venice. was made of See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime from See also:

• ISTRIA (Ger. Istrien)

Istria, which possessed no See also:

• HYDRAULIC

hydraulic qualities and was consequently very perishable, a fact which to a large extent accounts for the fall of the Campanile of San Marco . But when Venice took See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the mainland her builders were able to employ a strong hydraulic dark lime from Albettone, which formed a durable See also:

• CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

cement, capable of resisting salt water and the corrosive sea See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air . The church of St Mark's, originally the private See also:

• CHAPEL

chapel of the doge, is unique among the buildings of the world in respect of its unparalleled richness of material and decoration .. It See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew with the growing state whose religious centre it me Mark', was, and was adorned with the spoils of countless other buildings, both in the East and on the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian mainland . A law of the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic required every See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant trading to the East to bring back some material , for. the adornment of the fane . Indeed, the building has been compared to the treasure den of a gang of "sea sharkers," and from a museum of sculpture of the most varied See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, nearly every century from the 4th down to the latest Renaissance being represented, The present church is the third on this site .

Soon after the concentration at Rialto (see History below), a small wooden church was erected about the See also:

• YEAR

year 828 for the reception of the See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of St Mark, which had , been brought from See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria when the Moslems pulled down the church where he was buried . St Mark then became the See also:

• PATRON

patron See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

saint of Venice in place of St See also:

• THEODORE
• THEODORE (602-690)
• THEODORE (Fedor) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1741–1796)
• THEODORE (Rus. Fedor, or Feodor)

Theodore, This church was burned in 976 along with the ducal palace in the insurrection against the Doge Candiano IV, Pietro See also:

• ORSEOLO

Orseolo and his successors rebuilt the church on a larger See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale in the form of a See also:

• BASILICA

basilica with three eastern apses and no See also:

• TRANSEPT (from Lat. trans, across, and septum, enclosure; synonymous terms in other languages are Fr. croisee, nef transversee; Ital. crociata; Ger. Querbau, Quersch&)

transept, and Byzantine workmen were employed . As the state grew in wealth and importance the church grew with it . About the year 1063 the Doge See also:

• CONTARINI

Contarini resolved to re-See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model St Mark's . There can be no doubt that Byzantine artists had a large See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in the work, but it is equally certain that Lombard workmen were employed along with the Orientals, and thus St Mark's became, as it were, a workshop in which two styles, Byzantine and Lombard, met and were fused together, giving See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth to a new style, See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar to the See also:

• DISTRICT

district, which may fairly be called Veneto-Byzantine . In plan (see the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article ARCHITECTURE) St Mark's is a See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek cross of equal arms, covered by a dome in the centre, 42 ft. in diameter, and by a dome over each of the arms . The plan is derived from the Church of the See also:

• HOLY

Holy Apostles at Constantinople, now covered by the See also:

• MOSQUE (through Fr. mosquie; Span. mezquila, from Arab. masjid, sajada, to adore)

mosque of Mahommed II., and bears a strong resemblance to the plan of St Front at Perigueux in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France (1120) . The addition of a See also:

• NARTHEX (Gr. vapOr7E, the name of the plant giant=fennel, in Lat. ferula)

narthex before the main front and a See also:

• VESTIBULE (from Lat. vestibulum)

vestibule on the northern side brings the whole western See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm of the cross to a square on plan . In elevation the See also:

• FACADE

facade seems to have connexion with the five-bayed facade of the Kahriyeh Jame, or See also:

• MOSAIC (corresponding to Lat. opus musivum, from Gr. µovoeiov, an artificial grotto often decorated with mosaics; the word is only found in the sense of mosaic in late Greek, which generally uses k oXI yrlµa)

mosaic mosque, at Constantinople . The exterior facade is enriched with marble columns brought from Alexandria and other cities of the East, and bearing in many cases incised graffiti . Mosaics are employed to decorate the spandrils of the arches . Only one of the onginal mosaics now exists, the one over the See also:

• DOORWAY (corresponding to the Gr. Iran, Lat. porte)

doorway at the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-western, or St Alipio, See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle .

Its subject, which is of high See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical value as a record of See also:

• COSTUME
• COSTUME (through the Fr. costume, from Ital. costume, Late Lat. costuma, a contracted form of Lat. consuetudinem, ace. of consuetudo, custom, habit, manner, &c.)

costume, represents the See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of the See also:

• BODY

body of St Mark, and gives us a view of the west facade of the church as it was at the beginning of the 13th century before the addition of the See also:

• OGEE (probably an English corruption of Fr. ogive, a diagonal groin rib, being a moulding commonly employed; equivalents in other languages are Lat. cyma-reversa, Ital. gola, Fr. cymaise, Ger. Kehlleisten)

ogee gables, with alternating crockets and statues, and the intermediate pinnacled canopies placed between the five great arches of the upper storey . The See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the narthex forms a wide See also:

• GALLERY (through Ital. galleria, from Med. Lat. galeria, of which the origin is unknown)

gallery, communicating with the interior at the See also:

• TRIFORIUM

triforium level . In the centre of this gallery stand the four See also:

• COLOSSAL

colossal See also:

• BRONZE

bronze horses which belonged to some Graeco-See also:

• ROMAN

Roman triumphal See also:

• QUADRIGA

quadriga, and were brought to Venice by the Doge Enrico See also:

• DANDOLO
• DANDOLO, VINCENZO, COUNT (1758-1819)

Dandolo after the fall of Constantinople in 1204; they were carried off by See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon to See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris in 1797, and restored by See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis of See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria in 1815 . Mosaic is the essential decoration of the church, and the architectural details are subordinated to the colour See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme . These mosaics belong to very various dates . The Doge Domenico Selvo began the decoration of the church in 1071, though it is uncertain whether any of his work can be now identified . The mosaics of the domes would seem to belong to the 12th century, probably before 1150 . The mosaics of the See also:

• ATRIUM (either from ater, black, referring to the blackening of the walls from the smoke of the hearth, or from the Greek aiOpeov, open to the sky, or from an Etruscan town, Atria, where the style of building is supposed to have originated)

atrium date from 1200 to 1300; the subjects are taken from Old Testament See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story . The See also:

• BAPTISTERY (Baptislerium, in the Greek Church 4wrurrilpiov)

baptistery mosaics represent the See also:

• LIFE

life of St See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John . The mosaics in the chapel of St Isidore (finished by See also:

• ANDREA, GIOVANNI (1275-1348)

Andrea Dandolo), giving us the life of the saint, were executed in 1355 . In the See also:

• SACRISTY (through Fr. sacrist-le, from med. Lat. sacristies or sacristina)

sacristy is a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of loth-century mosaics, and in other parts of the church are inferior and later mosaics from cartoons by later Venetian masters . Below the mosaics the walls and arches are covered with rare marbles, porphyries and See also:

• ALABASTER
• ALABASTER, or ARBLASTIER, WILLIAM (1567-1640)

alabaster from ancient columns sawn into slices and so arranged in broad bands as to produce a rich See also:

• GAMUT (from the Greek letter gamma, used as a musical symbol, and ut, the first syllable of the medieval hymn Sanctus Johannes)

gamut of colour .

The eastern See also:

• CRYPT (Lat. crypta, from the Gr. Kp&arrew, to hide)

crypt, or conessio, extends under the whole of the See also:

• CHOIR (0. Fr. cuer from Lat. chorus; pronounced quire, and until the end of the 17th century so spelt, the spelling being altered to agree with the Fr. chceur)

choir and has three apses, like the upper church . The body of St Mark formerly rested here, but is now within the high See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

altar . Below the See also:

• NAVE

nave is another crypt . The floors of both crypts have sunk considerably and are often under water; this