See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

VERSE (from See also:

• LAT

Lat. versus, literally a See also:

• LINE

line or furrow See also:

• DRAWN

drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)  , the name given to an assemblage of words so placed together as to produce a metrical effect . The See also:

• ART

art of making, and the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science of analysing, such verses is known as Versification . According to Max See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller, there is an See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy between versus and the See also:

• SANSKRIT

Sanskrit See also:

• TERM

term, vritta, which is the name given by the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient grammarians of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India to the See also:

• RULE

rule determining the value of the quantity in vedic See also:

• POETRY

poetry . In See also:

• MODERN

modern speech, See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse is directly contrasted with See also:

• PROSE

prose, as being essentially the result of an See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to determined rules of See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form . In See also:

• ENGLISH

English we speak of " a verse " or " verses," with reference to specific instances, or of " verse," as the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general science or art of metrical expression, with its regulations and phenomena . A verse, which is a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of rhythmical syllables, divided by pauses, is destined in script to occupy a single See also:

• LINE

line, and was so understood by the ancients (the vrixor of the Greeks) . The Alexandrian scholiast See also:

• HEPHAESTION

Hephaestion speaks distinctly of verses that ceased to be verses because they were too See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long; he stigmatizes a See also:

• PENTAMETER

pentameter line of See also:

• CALLIMACHUS

Callimachus as Q•rixov urimuerpov . There is no danger, therefore, in our emphasizing this rule, and in saying that, even in Mr See also:

• SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES (1837–1909)

Swinburne's most extended experiments the theory is that a verse fills but one line in a supposititious piece of See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing . It is essential that the verse so limited should be a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete form in itself . It is not, like a clause or a See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence in prose, unrecurrent and unlimited, but it presents us with a successive and a continuous See also:

• CADENCE (through the Fr. from the Lat. cadentia, from cadere, to fall)

cadence, confined within definite See also:

• BOUNDS, BEATING THE

bounds . There has been a See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant discussion as to what it is in which this See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession and this continuity consist, and here we come at once to the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal difficulty which makes the See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of the processes of the poets so difficult . To go back to the earliest See also:

• EUROPEAN

European tradition, it is universally admitted that the ancient Greeks considered the art of verse as a See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of See also:

• MUSK (Med. Lat. muscus, late Gr. µbvXos, possibly Pers. mushk, from Sansk. mushka, the scrotum)

musk, and as such co-ordinated it with See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony and orchestral effect .

This appears from definite statements preserved in the fragments of See also:

• ARISTOXENUS

Aristoxenus of See also:

• TARENTUM
• TARENTUM (Gr. rapas)

Tarentum, a grammarian who lived in the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander the See also:

• GREAT

Great, and whom we shall see to have been the first who laid down definite See also:

• LAWS

laws for See also:

• PROSODY (Gr. rpovwSta)

prosody as a See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of musical art (µov000i) . It was found necessary, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to compose a See also:

• WORK

work of musical value, to work out a See also:

• SYSTEM

system of disciplined and linked See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement . This system, or arrangement, was called See also:

• RHYTHM (Greek pvBµds, from bap, to flow)

rhythm, and this is See also:

• COMMON

common to all the arts of See also:

• MELODY (Gr. ,ueXw3ia, a choral song, from name, tune, and gi6i, song)

melody . Harmony, consisting in the See also:

• REPRODUCTION

reproduction of the See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound of human voices or of musical See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments, and orchestrics, dealing with the movements of the human See also:

• BODY

body, were expressed in metrical art by that arrangement of syllables which is known as rhythm . The science of See also:

• METRE ((terpuc?, sc. rFxvf, from Gr. Or poi', measure)

metre is the teaching of those laws on which depends the rhythmical forms of poetry . This science has been, from the earliest ages of See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism, divided into a study of the general principles upon which all these forms are builded, and upon the See also:

• SPECIAL

special types into which they have gradually See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed . In considering ancient versification, it is necessary to give attention to Latin as well as to See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek metre, because although the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman poets were in the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main dependent upon the earlier tradition, there were several points at which they See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke away, and were almost entirely See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent . Roman verse, though essentially the same as Greek verse, was modified by the See also:

• NATIONAL

national development of See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian forms of poetry, by a simplified See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation of Greek See also:

• MEASURES

measures, and by a varied intensity in the creation of new types of the old Greek See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic forms (Volkmann) . In later times there was a tendency to consider the laws of metre as See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior to, and almost independent of, the native impulse of the poet; and this is where the study of the old poetry itself is most salutary, as checking us in our tendency to See also:

• BOW (pronounced " bo ")

bow too slavishly to the rules of the grammarians . No doubt, in the archaic times, theory and practice went See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand in hand . The poet, held in constant check by the exigencies of See also:

• MUSIC

music,, was obliged to recognize the existence of certain rules, the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of which was confirmed by the delicacy of his See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear . These he would pass down to his disciples, with any further discoveries which he might himself have made .

For instance, what we are somewhat vaguely told of the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of a poet like See also:

• ARCHILOCHUS

Archilochus, to whom the very invention of See also:

• TROCHAIC (from Gr. rpoxalos, rpoxaixos; Lat. trochaeus)

trochaic and See also:

• IAMBIC

iambic metre is, perhaps fabulously, attributed, points to the See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability that in Archilochus the Ionian See also:

• RACE

race produced a poet of extraordinary daring and delicacy of ear, who gathered the wandering rhythms that had existed, and had doubtless been used in an uncertain way before his See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, into a system which could be depended upon, and not in his hands only, to produce certain effects of welcome variety . His system would engage the attention of theorists, and we learn that by the time of See also:

• PLATO

Plato See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of oral metrical See also:

• EDUCATION

education were already in existence, where the science of sounds and syllables was already beginning to be recognized, as may be seen in the Cratylus . Before long, the teachings in these peripatetic schools would be preserved, for safety's See also:

• SAKE

sake, in writing, and the theoretic literature of versification would begin . In fact, we read in Suidas of a certain See also:

• LASUS

Lasus of Hermione who wrote an Art of Poetry, and the age of this, the earliest of recorded authorities on the formal laws of verse, is fixed for us by the fact that he is spoken of as having been the See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master of See also:

• PINDAR (Gr. HivSapos, c. 522–443 B.c.)

Pindar . Of the writings of Lasus and his followers, however, nothing remains, and the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of their teaching is problematical . In the 3rd See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C., however, we come upon a figure which preserves a definite character; this is Aristoxenus, the See also:

• DISCIPLE

disciple of See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle, who gave his undivided attention to rhythm, and who lives, unfortunately only in fragments, as the most eminent musical critic of antiquity . The brief fragments of his Elements of Rhythm (puO z Ka vrotxsia), originally written in three books, are of unsurpassed value to us as illustrating the attitude of classical See also:

• GREECE

Greece to the interrelation of verse and music . The third See also:

• BOOK

book of Aristoxenus dealt specifically with M tr, or the application of rhythm to artistically composed and written verse . It is certain that, after the time of Alexander the Great, the theories of verse tended somewhat rapidly to See also:

• RELEASE (O.Fr. reles, variant of relais, from relaisser, to release, let go, Lat. relaxare)

release themselves from the theories of music, and when, in the successive ages of Greek criticism, much attention was given to the laws of versification, less and less was said about harmony and more and more about metre . Rules, often of a highly arbitrary nature, were See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up by grammarians, who founded their laws on a scholiastic study of the ancient poets . The See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the See also:

• WORKS

works in which these rules were collected are lost, but an enchiridion of Greek metres, by Hephaestion, a scholiast of the 2nd century A.D., has been preserved . First printed in 1526, See also:

• EDITIONS

editions and See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations of Hephaestion's See also:

• MANUAL

manual have not been infrequent .

It is from Hephaestion that most of our ideas on the subject of classical prosody are obtained . His work, as we possess it, seems to be a See also:

• SUMMARY

summary, made by himself, for use in schools, of an exhaustivetreatise he had published .on the Greek metrical system as a whole. in 48 books . The pre-eminent importance of Hephaestion was exposed to the learned See also:

• WORLD

world of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe by Th . See also:

• GAISFORD, THOMAS (1779-1855)

Gaisford, in 181o . A contemporary of Hephaestion, Herodian, who was one of the most eminent of Alexandrian grammarians, gave See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close attention to prosody, and was believed to have summed up everything that could be known on the subject of verse by critics of the and century A.D., in his MeyaAn ,rpor La, in twenty hooks . As Herodian, throughout his See also:

• LIFE

life, seems to have concentrated his attention on the study of See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer, it is supposed that he started with a See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of the metre and See also:

• ACCENT

accent of the Iliad . The almost complete loss of his See also:

• TREATISES

treatises is regrettable . See also:

• PHILOXENUS
• PHILOXENUS (Syriac, Aksenaya)

Philoxenus was the author of a very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early work, JIpi uirpwv; but this is entirely lost . In the musical cyclopaedia of See also:

• QUINTILIAN [MARCUS FABIUS QUINTILIANUS] (C. A.D. 35-95)

Quintilian, there was included a See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter on the elements of the rhythmic art, and in this the metres recognized at the time were recorded and described . Among the Latin authorities on versification, the leading See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place is taken, in the 1st century Inc., by Terentius See also:

• VARRO, MARCUS TERENTIUS (116—27 B.C.)
• VARRO, PUBLIUS TERENTIUS

Varro, whose systematic treatment of metre in his works De sermone latino and De lingua See also:

• LATINA, VIA

latina is often referred to But we know more of See also:

• TERENTIANUS

Terentianus Maurus, who flourished in the second See also:

• HALF

half of the 2nd century A.D., since we possess from his hand a hand-book to metre, written in verse, in which, in particular, the Horatian metres are carefully analysed . He follows Caesius See also:

• BASSUS, AUFIDIUS
• BASSUS, CAESIUS
• BASSUS, CASSIANUS
• BASSUS, SALEIUS

Bassus, the friend of See also:

• NERO (37-68)

Nero, who had dedicated to his imperial See also:

• PATRON

patron a work on prosody, of which fragments exist . Three tracts, attributed to the rhetor C .

See also:

• MARIUS, GAIUS (r55–86 B.c.)

Marius See also:

• VICTORINUS, GAIUS MARIUS (4th century A.D.)

Victorinus (one entitled De ration metrorum), belong, to the 4th century, and are still quoted by scholars . Another early authority was h'lavius Mallius See also:

• THEODORUS, FLAVIUS MALLIUS

Theodorus, whose De Metris has been frequently reprinted . The metrical theory of the See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine grammarians was entirely in unison with the old tradition of the Alexandrian schools, and depended on the authority of Hephaestion . See also:

• MICHAEL
• MICHAEL (1596-1645)
• MICHAEL (Hebrew Sn,q, " Who is like God? ")

Michael See also:

• PSELLUS (Gr.'I' XXor)

Psellus, in the 9th century, wrote abundantly on the subject, and towards the close of the See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire the verse-handbooks of See also:

• ISAAC (Hebrew for " he laughs," on explanatory references to the name, see ABRAHAM)

Isaac See also:

• TZETZES, JOHN

Tzetzes (d . 1138) and of his See also:

• BROTHER

brother Joannes were in general use . A large number of other Byzantine scholiasts and theorists are mentioned in this connexion by Gleditsch . Very little attention was paid to metrical science in See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval and even See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance days . It is much to the See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour of English scholarship that the earliest modern writer who made a rational study of ancient metre was See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard See also:

• BENTLEY, RICHARD (1662-1742)
• BENTLEY, RICHARD (1794-1871)

Bentley, in his Schediasma de metris Terentianis, printed at See also:

• CAMBRIDGE
• CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802)

Cambridge in 1726 . He was soon followed by the Germans, in particular by See also:

• HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB (1772–1848)
• HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1804–1855)

Hermann, Boeckh and J . A . Apel . To this See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German scholarship easily leads in the rational and accurate study of classical versification .

The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief principle in ancient verse was quantity, that is, the amount of time involved in the effort to See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express a syllable . Accordingly, the two basal types which See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie at the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of classical metre are "longs " and " shorts." The See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

convention was that a long syllable was equal to two See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short ones: accordingly there was a real truth in calling the succession of such " feet " metre, for the length, or See also:

• WEIGHT

weight, of the syllables forming them could be, and was, measured . What has to be realized in speaking of ancient metre is that the value of these feet was defined with exactitude, not See also:

• LEFT

left uncertain, as it is in modern European verse, when accent is almost always made the guiding principle . In Greek verse, there might be an ictus (stress), which See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell upon the long syllable, but it could only be a regulating See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element, and accent was always a secondary element in the construction of Greek metre . The " feet " recognized and described by the ancient grammarians were various, and in their apparent diversity sometimes difficult to follow, but the comprehension of them is simplified if the student realizes that the names given to them are often superfluous . The main distinction between feet consists in the diversity of the relation between the strong and the weak syllables . There are naturally only two movements, the See also:

• QUICK

quick and the slow . Thus we have the See also:

• ANAPAEST (from Gr. ava1raulros, reversed)

anapaest (v v —, short-short-long) and the See also:

• DACTYL (from Gr. S&crvXo , a finger)

dactyl (— long-short-short), which are equal, and differ only as regards the position of their parts . To these follow two feet which must be considered as in their essence non-metrical, as it is only in See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination with others that they can become metrical . These are the spondee (- -, long-long) and the pyrrhic ( short-short) . Of more essential character are the two descriptions of slow feet, the iamb ( "—, short- long) and the trochee (— long-short) . Besides these definite types, the ingenuity of formalists has invented an almost See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

infinite number of other " feet." It is, perhaps, necessary to mention some of the principal of these, 'although they are, in the majority of cases, purely arbitrary .

In the rapid measures we find the tribrach (- - -e '--, short-shortshort), the molossus (---, Iong-long-long), the amphibrach (se- - short-long-short), the amphimacer (— -, longshort-long), the bacchius (v--, short-long-long) and the antibacchius (-- long-long-short) . There is a See also:

• FOOT

foot of four syllables, the choriamb (— —, long-short-shortlong), which is the fundamental foot in Aeolic verse—very frequently mentioned, but very seldom met with . It must not be forgotten that the prosodical terminology of the Greeks, which is often treated by non-poetical writers as something scientific and even sacrosanct, See also:

• DATES

dates from a time when ancient literature had lost all its freshness and impulse, and was exclusively the study of analysts and grammarians . Between the life of Pindar, for instance, and that of Hephaestion, the great metrical authority, there extends a longer See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period than between See also:

• CHAUCER, GEOFFREY (? 1340-1400)

Chaucer and See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor See also:

• SKEAT, WALTER WILLIAM (1835– )

Skeat; and to appreciate the value of the rules of Greek prosody we must recollect that those rules were invented by learned and See also:

• ACADEMIC

academic men to See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account for phenomena which they observed, and wished to comprehend, in writings that had long been classical, and were already growing positively archaic . The fact seems to be that the combination of long and short syllables into spondees, iambs, dactyls and anapaests, forms the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole genuine basis of all classical verse . Metre is a science which pays attention to all the possible See also:

• REGULAR

regular arrangements which can be made of these four indispensable and indestructible types . Of the metres of the ancients by far the most often employed, and no doubt the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest, was the dactylic See also:

• HEXAMETER

hexameter, a combination of six feet, five successive dactyls and a spondee or trochee: This was known to the ancients as " epic " verse, in contrast to the various lyrical measures . The poetry of Homer is the typical example of the use of the epic hexameter, and the character of the Homeric See also:

• SAGA (literally a story committed to writing)

saga led to the See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion by which the dactylic hexameter, whatever its subject, was styled " heroic metre." The earliest epics, doubtless, were chanted to the See also:

• ACCOMPANIMENT (i.e. that which " accompanies ")

accompaniment of a stringed See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument, on which the pulsation of the verse (E7rr7) was recorded . It was the See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion of V . See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ that the origin of the hexameter was to be sought in See also:

• HIERATIC

hieratic poetry, the fulness of the long dactylic line attracting the priests to its use in the delivery of oracles, from which it naturally passed to See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

solemn tales of the actions of gods and heroes . It is more difficult to see how, later on, it became the vehicle for comic and satiric writing, and is found at last adopted by the bucolic poets for their amorous and See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral dialogues . The Homeric form of the dactylic hexameter has been usually taken, and was taken in classical times, as the normal one, but there have been many See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations .

A hexameter found in See also:

• CATULLUS, GAIUS VALERIUS (?84-J4 B.C.)

Catullus consists exclusively of spondees, and deviation from the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original heroic type could go no further . This concentration of heavy sounds was cultivated to give solemnity to the character of the line . In the whole See also:

• MATTER

matter, it is best to recognize that the rules of the grammarians were made after the event, to account for the fact that the poets had chosen, while. adhering to the verse-structure of five rapid beats and a subsidence, to vary the See also:

• INTERNAL

internal character of that structure exactly as their ear and their See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion dictated . This seems particularly true in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of the See also:

• CAESURA (Lat. for " cutting," Gr. row))

caesura, where the question is not so much a matter of defining " male " caesura or " See also:

• FEMALE

female " caesura, " bucolic " caesura or " trochaic," as of patiently noting instances in which the unconscious poet, led by his See also:

• INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into)

inspiration, has varied his pauses and his emphasis at his own See also:

• FREE

free will . The critics have written much of " prosodical See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence," but verse in the days of Homer, like verse now, is simply See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good or See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad, and if it is good it may show See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty and variety, but it knows nothing of " licence." We pass, by a natural transition, to the pentameter, whichis the most frequently employed of what are known as the syncopied forms of dactylic verse . It was used with the hexameter, to produce the effect which was early called elegiac, and its form shows the appropriateness of this See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom: "Cynthia prima fu- it, 11 Cynthia finis e- rit." A hexameter, full of See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy and exaltation, followed . by a descending and See also:

• MELANCHOLY (Gr. µe)tayXotia, from µEtas, black, and Xotii, bile)

melancholy pentameter, had an immediate tendency to take a complete form, and this is the origin of the See also:

• STANZA (Low Lat. stantia, Ital. stantia or stanza)

stanza . The See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar character of this two-line stanza has been fixed for all time by a brilliant See also:

• EPIGRAM

epigram of See also:

• SCHILLER, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH VON (1759-18o5)

Schiller, which is itself a specimen of the form: " See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

Im Hexameter steigt See also:

• DES

des Springquells flussige Saute, Im Pentameter drauf fallt sie melodisch herab." Such a distich was called an See also:

• ELEGY

elegy, EXeyeiov, as specially suitable to an EXeyos or lamentation . It is difficult to say with certainty whether the distich so composed was essential as an accompaniment to See also:

• FLUTE

flute-music in the earliest times, or how soon there came to be written purely See also:

• LITERARY

literary elegies towards which the melody stood in a secondary or ornamental relation . It has, however, been observed that even when the distich had obviously come to be a purely intellectual or lyrical thing, there remained in the sound of the pentameter the trace of lamentation, in which its See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive use at funeral services was clearly preserved . Other grammarians, however, among whom Casar, in his work on the origin of elegiac verse, is prominent, do not believe in the lugubrious essence of the pentameter, and think that the elegiacal See also:

• COUPLET

couplet was originally erotic, and was adapted to mournful themes by See also:

• SIMONIDES (or SEMONIDES) OF AMORGOS

Simonides . If we may See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit a'passage in See also:

• ATHENAEUS

Athenaeus, it would seem that the earliest-known elegists, such as See also:

• CALLINUS

Callinus and See also:

• SOLON (7th and 6th century n.c.)

Solon, wrote for recitation, pure and See also:

• SIMPLE

simple, without the accompaniment of any instrument . Trochaic verse is called by the ancient grammarians See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head-less (aich¢aaov), because it really consists of iambic verse deprived of its head, or opening syllable .

The iambic measure (s-- - se — S- -) becomes trochaic if we cut off the first " short," and make it run — — v — . The pure trochaic trimeter and tetrameter had a character of breathless See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed, and sometimes See also:

• BORE

bore the name of choric (puOµds xopeios), because it was peculiarly appropriate to the See also:

• DANCE
• DANCE (Fr. danse; of obscure origin, connected with Old High Ger. danson, to stretch)

dance, and was used for poems which •expressed a. quickly stepping sentiment . It is understood that, after having been known as a musical movement, it was first employed in the See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition of poetry by Archilochus of See also:

• PAROS, or PARO

Paros, in the 7th century B.C . Iambic metre was, next to the dactylic hexameter, the form of verse most frequently employed by the poets of Greek antiquity . Archilochus, again, who seems to have been a great initiator in the arts of versification, is credited with the invention of the iambic trimeter also, but it certainly existed before his time . See also:

• MURRAY
• MURRAY (or MORAY), EARLS OF
• MURRAY (or MORAY), JAMES STUART, EARL OF (c. 1531-1570)
• MURRAY (or MORAY), SIR ROBERT (c. 1600-1673)
• MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART (1841-1904)
• MURRAY, DAVID (1849– )
• MURRAY, EUSTACE CLARE GRENVILLE (1824–1881)
• MURRAY, JAMES (c. 1719-1794)
• MURRAY, JOHN
• MURRAY, JOHN (1778–1820)
• MURRAY, LINDLEY (1745–1826)
• MURRAY, LORD GEORGE (1694–1760)
• MURRAY, SIR JAMES AUGUSTUS HENRY (1837– )
• MURRAY, SIR JOHN (1841– )

Murray believes the original iambic measure, in its popular familiarity, to have sprung from the See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship of the homely See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant gods, See also:

• DIONYSUS (probably = " son of Zeus," from & Os and vv(7os, a Thracian word for " son ")

Dionysus and See also:

• DEMETER

Demeter . It was not far removed from prose; it gave a writer. opportunity for expressing popular thoughts in a manner which simple men could appreciate, being close to their own unsophisticated speech . In particular, it presented itself as a See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven-made instrument for the See also:

• TALENT (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. TaXavrov, balance, ! Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles weight, from root raX-, to lift, as in rXi vac, to bear, 1-aXas, and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three Continental

talent of See also:

• EURIPIDES (48o–4o6 B.C.)

Euripides, " who, seeing poetry and meaning in every See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone of a See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

street, found in the current iambic trimeter a vehicle of expression in some ways more flexible even than prose." It was not, however, until the invention of the lyric proper, whether individual to the poet, or choral, that the full richness of possible rhythms became obvious to the Greeks . The lyric inspiration came originally from the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of See also:

• LESBOS (Mytilene, Turk. Midullu)

Lesbos, and it passed down through the See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

archipelago to See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete before it reached the mainland of Greece . The Lesbians cultivated a monodic See also:

• ODE (Gr. uiSri, from aei&ew, to sing)

ode-poetry in strophes and monostrophes, the en-chanting beauty of which can still be realized in measure from what remains to us of the writings of See also:

• SAPPHO (7th–6th centuries B.C.)

Sappho and See also:

• ALCAEUS (Ar earos)

Alcaeus . There is a stanza known as the Sapphic and another as the Alcaic . 1044 The Sapphic runs as follows: ..

I I ---• I L— _ The stanza of Alcaeus runs:- - ... I %I I These marvellous inventions suited the different moods of these strongly contrasted lyrists, the " See also:

• VIOLET

violet-crowned, pure, softly smiling Sappho," and the Eery, vehement soldier who was Alcaeus . We must give them peculiar attention, since they were the two earliest See also:

• MODELS

models for the lyric passion which has since then expressed itself in so many stanzaic forms, but in none of so faultless a perfection as the original Lesbian types . The name of See also:

• STESICHORUS (c. 640–555 B.C.)

Stesichorus of See also:

• HIMERA

Himera points to the belief of antiquity that he was the earliest poet who gave form to the choral See also:

• SONG

song; he must have been called the " See also:

• CHOIR (0. Fr. cuer from Lat. chorus; pronounced quire, and until the end of the 17th century so spelt, the spelling being altered to agree with the Fr. chceur)

choir-setter " because he arranged and wrote for choirs semi-epic verse of a new See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, " made up of halves of the epic hexameter, interspersed with short variations—epitrites, anapaests or See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere syncopae—just enough to break the dactylic See also:

• SWING, DAVID (1830-1894)

swing, to make the verse lyrical " (See also:

• GILBERT
• GILBERT (KINGSMILL) ISLANDS
• GILBERT (or GYLBERDE), WILLIAM (1544-1603)
• GILBERT, ALFRED (1854– )
• GILBERT, ANN (1821-1904)
• GILBERT, GROVE KARL (1843– )
• GILBERT, J
• GILBERT, JOHN (1810-1889)
• GILBERT, MARIE DOLORES ELIZA ROSANNA [" LOLA MONTEZ "] (1818-1861)
• GILBERT, NICOLAS JOSEPH LAURENT (1751–1780)
• GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (c. 1539-1583)
• GILBERT, SIR JOSEPH HENRY (1817-1901)
• GILBERT, SIR WILLIAM SCHWENK (1836– )

Gilbert Murray) . But it appears to be to See also:

• ARLON

Arlon that the artistic form of the dithyramb is due . We are all among innovators and creators in this glorious 5th century B.C . Simonides gathered the various inventions together, and exercised his See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius upon them all: he was the earliest universal lyrist of the world: he treated the styles of verse, as See also:

• SHELLEY, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1797-1851)
• SHELLEY, PERCY BYSSHE (1792-1822)

Shelley or as See also:

• VICTOR
• VICTOR, GAIUS JULIUS (4th cent. A.D.)
• VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS

Victor See also:

• HUGO, GUSTAV VON (1764–1844)
• HUGO, VICTOR MARIE (1802-1885)

Hugo did, with an impartial mastery . After the happy event of the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War, See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens became the centre of literary activity in Greece, and here the great school of See also:

• DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. Snail, act or do)

drama developed itself, using for its vehicle, in See also:

• DIALOGUE

dialogue, See also:

• MONOLOGUE (from Gr. µovos, alone, and X yos, speech)

monologue and See also:

• CHORUS (Gr. xopbs)Z

chorus, nearly all the metres which earlier ages and distant provinces had invented . The verse-form which the dramatists preferred to use was almost exclusively the iambic trimeter, a form which adapted itself equally well to tragedy and to See also:

• COMEDY

comedy . See also:

• AESCHYLUS (525–456 B.c.)

Aeschylus employed for his choruses a great number of lyric measures, which See also:

• SOPHOCLES (495-406 B.c.)

Sophocles and Euripides reduced and regulated . With the age of the dramatists the creative See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of the Greeks in versification came to an end, and the revival of poetic See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm in the Alexandrian age brought with it no talent for fresh metrical inventions, and the time had now arrived when the See also:

• HARVEST (A.S. hcerfest " autumn," O.H. Ger. herbist, possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. car pere, " to pluck ")

harvest of Greek prosody was completely garnered . Latin Metre.—Very little is known about the verse-forms of the original inhabitants of See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, before the introduction of Greek influences .

The earliest use of poetry as a national art in Italy is to be judged by See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions in what is called the Saturnian metre . Already, the first Latin epic poets, Livius Andronicus in his Odyssia, See also:

• NAEVIUS, GNAEUS (c. 264–? 194 B.C.)

Naevius in his Bellum Punicum, the Scipios in their Elogia, combined their See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude national sense of folk-song with a consciousness of the quantitative rules of the Greeks . But the same writers, in their dramas, undoubtedly used Greek metres without See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation, and it is therefore likely that the ancient Saturnian measure was already looked upon as barbarous, and it makes no further reappearance in Latin literature (cf . Gleditsch) . The introduction of Greek dramatic metre marks the start of regular poetry among the Latins, which was due, not to men of Roman See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth, but to poets of Greek extractionor inhabiting the Greek-speaking provinces of Italy . These writers, bearing the See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

stamp of a widely recognized cultivation, threw the old national verse back into oblivion . Latin verse, then, began in a free but loyal modification of the principles of Greek verse . See also:

• PLAUTUS, TITUS MACCIUS (originally perhaps MACCUS; cf. Asin. Prol. 11)

Plautus was particularly ambitious and skilful in this work, and, aided by a native genius for metre, he laid down the basis of Latin dramatic versification . See also:

• TERENCE

Terence was a feebler and at the same time a more timid metrist . In See also:

• SATIRE (Lat. satira, satura; see below)

satire, the iambic and trochaic measures were carefully adaptedby See also:

• ENNIUS, QUINTUS (239-170 B.c.)

Ennius and See also:

• LUCILIUS, GAIUS (c. 18o–ro3 B.C.)

Lucilius . The dactylic hexameter followed, and Ennius, in all matters of verse a daring innovator, directly imitated in his Annales the epic measure of the Greeks . To him also is attributed the introduction of the elegiac distich, hexameter and pentameter .

The dactylic hexameter was forthwith adopted as the leading metre of the Roman poets, and, as Gleditsch has pointed out, the basis upon which all future versification was to be erected was firmly laid down before the See also:

• DEATH

death of Ennius in 169 B.C . Lucilius followed, but perhaps with some tendency to retrogression, for the Latin critics seem to have looked upon his metre as wanting both in melody and See also:

• ELASTICITY

elasticity . See also:

• LUCRETIUS (TITUS LUCRETIUS CARUS) (c. 98–55 B.C.)

Lucretius, on the other hand, made a further advance on the labours of Ennius, in his study of " the rise And long See also:

• ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. role, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota, wheel)
• ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846– )

roll of the Hexameter." Lest, however, this great form of verse should take too exclusive a place in the See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination of the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans, a younger See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation, with See also:

• LAEVIUS (? c. 8o B.C.)

Laevius and Terentius Varro at their head, began to imitate the lyrical measures of the Greeks with remarkable success . Varro, who has been styled the earliest metrical theorist of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, opened up a new See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field in this direction by the example of his Menippean satires . These poets left the rigid school of Ennius, and sought to emulate the Alexandrians of their own age: we see the result in the lyric measures used so gracefully and with such brilliant ease by Catullus . The versification of the Romans reached its highest point of See also:

• POLISH

polish in the Augustan age, in the writings of See also:

• TIBULLUS, ALBIUS (c. 54–19 B.c.)

Tibullus, See also:

• PROPERTIUS, SEXTUS (ft. 30-15 B.C.)

Propertius, See also:

• VIRGIL (PUBLIUS VERGILIUS MARC)
• VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555)

Virgil and particularly See also:

• OVID [PUBLIUS OvID1us NASO] (43 B.C.–A.D. 17)

Ovid, who is considered to See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark the highest level of various excellence which has ever been reached by a master of Latin versification . In See also:

• HORACE [QuINTus HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.)

Horace has been traced a tendency to archaism in the study of verse, and in his odes and epodes he was not content with the soft Alexandrian models, but aimed at achieving more vigorous effects by an imitation of the older Greek models, such as Alcaeus and even Archilochus . After the Augustan age, it was no longer the Greek poets, ancient or See also:

• RECENT

recent, who were imitated, but the Augustans them-selves were taken as the inapproachable models of Roman verse . We have hitherto spoken of classical versification as it was regarded by those whom, without offence, we may describe as pedants . But there is See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of the mode in which metre was regarded by poets, and by one of the greatest artists of antiquity . In his Art of Poetry Horace has been speaking of the need of method in composition—" tantum series juncturaque pollet "—and this reminds him that he has said nothing of the art of verse . The succeeding twenty-four lines contain all that this great poet thought it needful to See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply on the subject with which Alexandrian grammarians could fill as many volumes .

Although he is actually writing in dactylic hexameters, he does not mention this form of verse; he is chiefly occupied in describing, rather unscientifically, the iambic trimeter, and in praising the iamb, pes cites . He applauds, still somewhat vaguely, the stately versification of the precursors, Ennius and See also:

• ACCIUS
• ACCIUS, LUCIUS

Accius, and blames the immodulata poemata of careless modern writers, whose laxity is condoned by popular See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance . The only way to See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape such faults is to study the Greeks by See also:

• NIGHT

night and by day, but Horace evidently means by his exemplaria Graeca, not the scholiasts with their lists of metres and their laborious rules, but the old poets with their See also:

• FINE

fine raptures . On Italian ground he points to Plautus, and laments that the Romans of his own day, fascinated by softer cadences, have lost their veneration for the vigorous beauty of the Plautinos numeros . And Horace closes with a queer See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion, which may be taken as we please, that a poet in an age of flagging inspiration must See also:

• TRUST

trust to his fingers as well as his ears . Modern Versification.—The main distinction between classical and modern versification consists in the See also:

• NEGLIGENCE (Lat. negligentia, from negligere, to neglect, literally " not to pick up ")

negligence shown by the moderns to quantity, which is defined as the length or shortness of the sound of syllables, as determined by the time required to pronounce them . This See also:

• DIMENSION (from Lat. dimensio, a measuring)

dimension of sound was rigid in the case of Greek and Latin poetry, until, in what is known as the See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle Greek period, there came in a general tendency to relax the exact value of sounds and syllables, and to introduce accent, which is a measure of quality rather than of quantity . A syllable, in modern verse, is heavy or See also:

• LIGHT

light, according as it is accented or unaccented—that is to say, according as it receives stress from the See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice or not . In the word " See also:

• TULIP (Tulipa)

tulip," for instance, the syllables are of equal length, but the accent is strongly upon the first . It is mainly a question of force with us, not of time as with the ancients . There is, however, an element of quantity in modern verse, as there was of accent in ancient verse . The foot, in modern verse, takes a less prominent place in itself than it did in Greece, and is regarded more in relation to the whole line of which it makes a See also:

• PART

part .

A mere counting of syllables is useless . In See also:

• MILTON
• MILTON, JOHN (1608–1674)