See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

CONGRESS OF See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1814-1815)

VIENNA (1814-1815)  . The fall of See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon was only achieved by the creation of a See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance between See also:

• GREAT

Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain, See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria, See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia and See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia . By the Treaty of Chaumont of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March ro, 1814, these four See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound them-selves together in a See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

bond which was not to be dissolved when See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace was concluded . When Napoleon had been beaten, See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France conceded to these See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies by a See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article of the first Treaty of See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris of May 30, 1814, the disposition of all countries which Napoleon's fall had freed from See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• SUZERAINTY

suzerainty . This stupendous task was reserved for a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

congress, and it was agreed to meet at See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna . The visit of the allied sovereigns to See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England and the pressing engagements of the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander and See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord Castlereagh delayed the congress until the autumn, when all See also:

• EUROPE

Europe sent its representatives to accept the hospitality of the impoverished but magnificent See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court . Metternich, though he had not yet completely established his position, acted as See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief Austrian representative, and he was naturally in his capacity as See also:

• HOST

host the See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president of the congress . See also:

• FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836— )

Friedrich v . See also:

• GENTZ, FRIEDRICH VON (1764-1832)

Gentz acted as secretary both to him and the congress and did much of the routine See also:

• WORK

work . Alexander of Russia directed his own See also:

• DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic)

diplomacy, and See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round him he had gathered a brilliant See also:

• BODY

body of men who could See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express but not See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control their See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master's desires . Of these the chief were foreigners, according to the traditions of See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian diplomacy . See also:

• CAPO

Capo d'See also:

• ISTRIA (Ger. Istrien)

Istria, See also:

• NESSELRODE, KARL ROBERT, COUNT (178o-I862)

Nesselrode, See also:

• STEIN, CHARLOTTE VON (1742-1827)
• STEIN, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH KARL, BARON VOM

Stein, Pozzo di Borgo were perhaps the best men in Europe to See also:

• MANAGE

manage the Russian policy, while Czartoriski represented at the imperial court the See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope of See also:

• POLISH

Polish See also:

• NATIONALITY

nationality .

See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William III. of Prussia was a weaker See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character and, as will be seen, his policy was largely determined by his ally . See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince von See also:

• HARDENBERG, KARL AUGUST VON, PRINCE (1750-1822)

Hardenberg, who by no means shared all the views of his master but was incapacitated by his growing infirmities, was first Prussian plenipotentiary, and assisting him was See also:

• BARON
• BARON (1835-1895)
• BARON, MICHEL (1653—1729)

Baron von See also:

• HUMBOLDT, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH ALEXANDER, BARON
• HUMBOLDT, KARL WILHELM VON (1767-1835)

Humboldt . Great Britain was represented by Lord Castlereagh, and under him were the See also:

• BRITISH

British diplomats who had been attached to the See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign armies since 1813, Clancarty, See also:

• STEWART, ALEXANDER TURNEY (1803-1876)
• STEWART, BALFOUR (1828-1887)
• STEWART, CHARLES (1778–1869)
• STEWART, DUGALD (1753-1828)
• STEWART, J
• STEWART, JOHN (1749—1822)
• STEWART, JULIUS L
• STEWART, SIR DONALD MARTIN (1824–19o0)
• STEWART, SIR HERBERT (1843—1885)
• STEWART, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1540—c. 1605)
• STEWART, STUART
• STEWART, WILLIAM (c. 1480-c. 1550)

Stewart and See also:

• CATHCART
• CATHCART, SIR GEORGE (1794-1854)
• CATHCART, WILLIAM SCHAW CATHCART

Cathcart . Castlereagh brought with him decided views, which however were not altogether those of his See also:

• CABINET

cabinet, and his position was weakened by the fact that Great Britain was still at See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war with the See also:

• UNITED

United States, and that public See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home cared for little but the abolition of the slave See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade . When See also:

• PARLIAMENTARY

parliamentary duties called Castlereagh home in See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1815, the See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of See also:

• WELLINGTON
• WELLINGTON, ARTHUR WELLESLEY, 1ST DUKE OF (1769-1852)

Wellington filled his See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place with adequate dignity and statesmanship until the war See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out . France sent Prince Talleyrand to conduct her difficult affairs . No other See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man was so well fitted for the task of maintaining the interests of a defeated See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . His rare See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic skill and supreme intellectual endowments were to enable him to See also:

• PLAY

play a deciding See also:

• PART

part in the coming congress . All the See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor powers of Europe were represented, for all See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt that their interests were at stake in the coming See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement . Gathered there also were a host of publicists, secretaries and courtiers, and never before had Europe witnessed such a collection of See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank and See also:

• TALENT (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. TaXavrov, balance, ! Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles weight, from root raX-, to lift, as in rXi vac, to bear, 1-aXas, and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three Continental

talent . From the first the social See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the congress impressed observers with its See also:

• WEALTH

wealth and variety, nor did the statesmen disdain to use the dining-table or the ballroom as the See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments of their diplomacy . All Europe awaited with eager expectation the results of so great an See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly .

The See also:

• FATE

fate of See also:

• POLAND (Polish Polska, Ger. Polen), (see POLAND, RUSSIAN, below)
• POLAND, RUSSIAN

Poland and See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony hung in the See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance; See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany awaited an entirely new reorganization; See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy was again ready for dismemberment; rumours went that even the See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

pope and the See also:

• SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

sultan might be largely affected . Some there were who hoped that so great an opportunity would not be lost, but that the statesmen would initiate such See also:

• MEASURES

measures of See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international disarmament as would perpetuate the blessings of that peace which Europe was again enjoying after twenty years of warfare . It was not See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long, however, before the allies displayed their intention of keeping the management of affairs entirely in their own hands . At an informal See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting on the 22nd of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September the four great powers agreed that all subjects of general See also:

• INTEREST

interest were to be settled by a See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee consisting of Austria, Russia, Prussia and Great Britain together with France and See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain . At the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, however, it was decided by'a secret See also:

• PROTOCOL (Fr. protocole, Late Lat. protocollum, from Gr. vrp(;rros, first, and KoXXav, to glue, i.e. originally the first sheet of a papyrus roll)

protocol that the four powers should first See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle among themselves the See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of the conquered territories, and that France and Spain should only be consulted when their final decision was announced . This was the situation which Talleyrand had to See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face when he arrived on the 24th of September . His first step when he was admitted to the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European committee, which was in the plans of the allies to See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act so colourless a part, was to ignore the position of the Four and to assert that only the congress as a whole could give the committee full powers . This would have meant an almost indefinite delay, for how was it possible to decide the exact rights of all the different states to avoice in affairs ? After some heated discussion a See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

compromise was arrived at . The opening of the congress was postponed, and See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden and See also:

• PORTUGAL

Portugal were added to the European committee, but the Four still persisted in the informal meetings which were to decide the important questions . Meanwhile See also:

• SEPARATE

separate committees were formed for the discussion of special problems . Thus a special committee was appointed consisting of the five See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German powers to discuss the constitution which was to replace the See also:

• HOLY

Holy See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire, another to settle that of See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland, and others for other minor questions .

Talleyrand had, how-ever, already shaken the position of the allies . He had posed as the defender of the public rights of Europe and won to his side the smaller powers and much of the public opinion of Europe, while the allies were beginning to be regarded more in the See also:

• LIGHT

light of rapacious conquerors than as disinterested defenders of the liberties of Europe . Had the Four remained united in their views they would still have been irresistible . But they were gradually dividing into two unreconcilable parties upon the Saxon-Polish question . Alexander, exaggerating the part he had played in the final struggle, and with some vague See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of nationality in his See also:

• BRAIN (A.S. braegen)

brain, demanded that the whole of Poland should be added to the Russian dominions . Austria was to be compensated in Italy, while Prussia was to receive the whole of Saxony, whose unfortunate monarch had been the most faithful of Napoleon's vassals . It was Castlereagh that led the opposition to these almost See also:

• PEREMPTORY

peremptory demands of Alexander . A true See also:

• DISCIPLE

disciple of See also:

• PITT, THOMAS (1653-1726)
• PITT, WILLIAM (1759-1806)

Pitt, he came to the congress with an overwhelming distrust of the growing See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of Russia, which was only second to his hatred of revolutionary France . He considered that the See also:

• EQUILIBRIUM (from the Lat. aequus, equal, and libra, a balance)

equilibrium of Europe would be irretrievably upset were the Russian boundaries to be pushed into the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of Germany . Thus while willing, even anxious that Prussia should receive Saxony, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order that she might be strong to meet the danger from the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East, he was prepared to go to any lengths to resist the claims of Russia . For Austria Saxony was really of more vital interest than Poland, but Castlereagh, despite a vigorous resistance from a See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of the Austrian court, was able to win Metternich over to his views . He hoped to gain Prussia also to his side, and by uniting the German powers to force Alexander to retire from the position he had so uncompromisingly laid down .

With the Prussian statesmen he had some success, but he could make no impression on Frederick William . Alexander used to the utmost that See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence over the mind of the Prussian monarch which he had been preparing since the beginning of 1813 . Against Castlereagh be entered the lists personally, and memorandum after memorandum was exchanged . Despite the warning letters of the British cabinet which, dismayed at the long continuance of the See also:

• AMERICAN

American War, counselled caution on a question in which England had no immediate interest, Castlereagh yielded no See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch of his ground . But Metternich wavered on the question of Saxony, and See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December saw the allies hopelessly at difference . It seemed by no means unlikely that the armies which had conquered Napoleon would soon be engaged in conflict with one another . It was Talleyrand's opportunity . As Castlereagh and Metternich began to regard the position as hopeless they began to look upon him as a possible ally . Talleyrand had constantly defended the rights of France's old ally Saxony in the name of the principle which his master See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis XVIII. represented . His passionate See also:

• APPEAL

appeal on behalf of " See also:

• LEGITIMACY

legitimacy " was particularly adapted to the necessities of the situation . Alexander was driven into transports of rage by this championship of the ancien regime by one who had been a servant of its bitterest foe . But Castlereagh saw that war could only be avoided if one party was made stronger than the other .

The reluctant consent of the British cabinet was obtained and Talleyrand was approached as an equal . He came boldly to the front in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of December as the See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion of Saxony; and, as Russia and Prussia were still obstinate, Metternich and Castlereagh demanded the See also:

• ADMISSION

admission of France to the secret See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council . This was refused, and on the 3rd of See also:

• JANUARY

January 1815 a secret treaty of defensive alliance was signed between France, Austria and Great Britain . For some time affairs hung in the balance, but Alexander could not See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

mistake the See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone of his opponents . Gradually a compromise was arranged, and by the end of the See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month all danger was past . Eventually Austria and Prussia retained most of their Polish dominions, and the latter power only received about two-fifths of Saxony . The See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of Poland was incorporated as a separate See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom in the Russian dominions with a promise of a constitution of its own . Talleyrand had rescued France from its humiliating position, and set it as an equal by the side of the allies . Hence-forward he made no effort for the rights of the whole congress . Meanwhile other affairs had been progressing more harmoniously under the direction of special committees, which included representatives of the powers specially interested . Switzerland was given a constitution which led it in the direction of its later federalism . In Italy Austria retained her hold on See also:

• LOMBARDY

Lombardy and See also:

• VENETIA

Venetia, See also:

• GENOA (anc. Genua, Ital. Genova, Fr. GPnes)

Genoa was assigned to the kingdom of See also:

• SARDINIA (Gr. 'IXs'o"uva, from a fancied resemblance to a footprint in its shape, Ital. Sardegna)

Sardinia, while See also:

• PARMA

Parma went to See also:

• MARIE

Marie See also:

• LOUISE [AUGUSTE WILHELMINE AMALIE LUISE] (1776-1810)

Louise, the legitimate See also:

• HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir, Carlo Ludivico, having to be content with the reversion after her See also:

• DEATH

death, the congress meanwhile assigning See also:

• LUCCA (anc. Luca)
• LUCCA, BAGNI DI (Baths of Lucca, formerly Bagno a Corsena)

Lucca to him as a duchy; the claims of the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young Napoleon to succeed his See also:

• MOTHER

mother in Parma were only destroyed by the efforts of France and England .

The other See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty monarchs were restored, and See also:

• MURAT, JOACHIM (1767—1815)

Murat's rash See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt, after Napoleon's return from See also:

• ELBA (Gr. AiWaXla; Lat. Ilva)

Elba, to make himself See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of united Italy, gave back See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples to the Bourbons, an event which would have been brought about in any See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case in the course of the next few years (see MURAT, See also:

• JOACHIM, JOSEPH (1831—1907)

JOACHIM) . See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland was confirmed in the See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium and See also:

• LUXEMBURG
• LUXEMBURG, FRANCOIS HENRI DE MONTMORENCYBOUTEVILLE, DUKE

Luxemburg, See also:

• LIMBURG
• LIMBURG, or LIMEOURG

Limburg and See also:

• LIEGE
• LIEGE (Walloon, Lige, Flemish, Luik, Ger. Lilltich)

Liege were added to her dominions . Sweden, who had sacrificed See also:

• FINLAND (Finnish, Suomi or Suomenmaa)

Finland to Russia, obtained See also:

• NORWAY
• NORWAY (Norge)

Norway . German affairs, however, proved too complicated for See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution . It was difficult enough to decide the claims of the states in the scramble for territory . Eventually, however, by methods of compromise, this was adjusted fairly satisfactorily . The greater states gained largely, especially Prussia, who was given large accessions of territory on the See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine, partly as a See also:

• COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

compensation for her disappointment in the See also:

• MATTER

matter of Saxony, partly that she might act as a See also:

• BULWARK (a word probably of Scandinavian origin, from bol or bole, a tree-trunk, and werk, work, in Ger. Bollwerk, which has also been derived from an old German bolen, to throw, and so a machine for throwing missiles)

bulwark against France . Some disputes between See also:

• BADEN
• BADEN, GRAND DUCHY OF

Baden and See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria remained unsettled, and many questions arising out of the new federal constitution of Germany, which had been hurriedly patched together under the influence of the See also:

• NEWS

news of Napoleon's return, had to be postponed for further discussion, and were not settled until the Final Act agreed upon by the See also:

• CONFERENCE

conference of German statesmen at Vienna in 1821 . Other more general See also:

• OBJECTS

objects, such as the See also:

• FREE

free See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation of international See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers and the regulation of the rights of See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

precedence among diplomatists (see DIPLOMACY), were managed with much address . Castlereagh's great efforts were rewarded by a See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

declaration that the slave trade was to be abolished, though each power was See also:

• LEFT

left free to See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix such a date as was most convenient to itself . The Final Act, embodying all the separate See also:

• TREATIES

treaties, was signed on the 9th of See also:

• JUNE

June 1815, a few days before the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of See also:

• WATERLOO

Waterloo . Before the work of the congress was completed Napoleon was again at Paris, and the closing stages were hurried and See also:

• ILL

ill-considered .

One negotiation of supreme importance was cut See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short for this See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason . Castlereagh had left Vienna with the hope that the powers would solemnly See also:

• GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt " guarantie " or " guaranty "; an O. Fr. form of " warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as wahren, to defend or make safe and binding)

guarantee their territorial settlement and promise to make collective war on whoever dared to disturb it . This guarantee was to include the See also:

• OTTO

Otto-man dominions, in whose interests, indeed, it had been brought forward . Alexander made no objection provided that the See also:

• PORTE, THE SUBLIME (Arab. babi-'ali, the high gate, through the French translation la sublime porte)

Porte would submit all outstanding claims to See also:

• ARBITRATION (Lat. arbitrari, to examine or judge)
• ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL

arbitration . The distance of See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople from Vienna and the obstinacy of the sultan would probably have prevented a settlement, but the return of Napoleon rendered all such proposals almost absurd, and the See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme was dropped . Thus the congress of Vienna failed to See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

institute any new See also:

• SYSTEM

system for securing the stability of the European polity, nor didit recognize those new forces of See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty and nationality which had really caused Napoleon's downfall . Following the tradition of all preceding congresses, it was mainly a scramble for territory and power . Territories were distributed among the powers with no See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration for the feelings of their in-habitants, and in general the right of the strongest prevailed . For this reason it has often met with a condemnation that has perhaps been unmerited . It is true that the See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map of Europe shows to-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day but little trace of its influence; but much of its work was determined by conditions over Which statesmen had little control . Europe was not ready for the recognition of nationality and liberalism . What it wanted most of all was peace, and by establishing something like a territorial equilibrium the congress did much to win that breathing space which was the See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

cardinal need of all .