VITOR  IA See also:

• JUNE

June stet, t8t; the yenerol oharnot.r of the ground bawd. the dodorro eM tM Betas See also:

• UREA, or CARBAMIDE, CO(NH2)2

urea broken and'eaadµ hilly a+d intersected by nervy Omani ../ , See also:

• PUEBLA
• PUEBLA (full title La Puebla de los Angeles, and more recently, Puebla de Zaragoza)

Puebla de Minnows Redrawn from See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

Major-See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

General C . W . See also:

• ROBINSON, EDWARD (1794–1863)
• ROBINSON, HENRY CRABB (1777–1867)
• ROBINSON, JOHN (1575–1625)
• ROBINSON, JOHN (1650-1723)
• ROBINSON, JOHN THOMAS ROMNEY (1792–1882)
• ROBINSON, MARY [" Perdita "] (1758–1800)
• ROBINSON, SIR JOHN BEVERLEY, BART
• ROBINSON, SIR JOSEPH BENJAMIN (1845– )
• ROBINSON, THEODORE (1852-1896)

Robinson's See also:

• WELLINGTON
• WELLINGTON, ARTHUR WELLESLEY, 1ST DUKE OF (1769-1852)

Wellington's See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

Campaigns, by permission of See also:

• HUGH
• HUGH, ST

Hugh See also:

• REES, THOMAS (1777–1864)

Rees, Ltd . BmeryVNter or- in all See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability, constituted an essential feature in the Scottish forts . Except on the See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis of buttresses of a similar See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, it is impossible to explain the vast quantities of loose stones which are found both inside and outside many of the vitrified walls . The method by which the See also:

• FUSION

fusion of such extensive fortifications was produced has excited much conjecture . See also:

• WILLIAMS
• WILLIAMS, JOHN (1582-1650)
• WILLIAMS, JOHN (1796-1839)
• WILLIAMS, ROGER (c. 1604–1684)
• WILLIAMS, ROWLAND (1817-1870)
• WILLIAMS, SIR WILLIAM FENWICK

Williams maintained that the builders found out, either during the See also:

• PROCESS

process of smelting See also:

• BOG (from Ir. and Gael. bogach, bog, soft)

bog-ore, or whilst offering sacrifices, the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire in vitrifying See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone, and that they utilized this method to See also:

• CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

cement and strengthen their defences . This view has been keenly controverted, and it has been suggested that the vitrified summits were not forts but the craters of See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct volcanoes, an hypothesis See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long since abandoned; that they are not so much forts as vitrified sites, and that the vitrescence was produced by fires lighted during times of invasion, or in religious celebrations; and, lastly, that if they were forts they must originally have been built of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood and stone, and that their See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance is due to their being set on fire by a besieging enemy . The theory of Williams has, with modifications, been accepted by the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal authorities . It is supported by the following facts: (1) The See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of strengthening walls by means of fire is not singular, or confined to a distinct See also:

• RACE

race or See also:

• AREA

area, as is proved by the burnt-See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth enclosure of Aztalan, in See also:

• WISCONSIN (known as " the Badger' state ")
• WISCONSIN, UNIVERSITY OF

Wisconsin, and the vitrified stone monuments of the See also:

• MISSISSIPPI

Mississippi valley . (2) Many of the See also:

• PRIMARY

Primary rocks, particularly the See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists, gneisses and traps, which contain large quantities of potash and soda, can be readily fused in the open See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air by means of wood fires—the See also:

• ALKALI

alkali of the wood serving in some measure as a See also:

• FLUX (Lat. fluxus, a flowing; this being also the meaning of the English term in medicine, &c.)

flux . (3) The walls are chiefly vitrified at the weakest points, the naturally inaccessible parts being unvitrified .

(4) When the forts have been placed on materials practically infusible, as on the quartzose conglomerates of the Old Red See also:

• SANDSTONE

Sandstone, as at See also:

• CRAIG, JOHN (1512 ?-1600)
• CRAIG, SIR THOMAS (c. 1538–1608)

Craig Phadraic, and on the limestones of Dun Mac Uisneachain, pieces of fusible rocks have been selected and carried to the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top from a considerable distance . (5) The vitrified walls of the Scottish forts are invariably formed of small stones which could be easily acted upon by fire, whereas the See also:

• OUTER

outer See also:

• RAM
• RAM, PIERRE FRANCOIS XAVIER DE (18o4-1865)

ram-parts, which are not vitrified, are built of large blocks . (6) Many of the See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental forts are so constructed that the fire must have been applied internally, and at the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time when the structure was being erected . (7) See also:

• DAUBREE, GABRIEL AUGUSTE (1814-1896)

Daubree, in an See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis which he made on vitrified materials taken from four See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French forts, and which he submitted to the See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy of See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris in See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1881, found the presence of natron in such See also:

• GREAT

great abundance that he inferred that See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt was used to facilitate fusion . (8) In Scandinavia, where there are hundreds of See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary forts, and where for centuries a See also:

• SYSTEM

system of See also:

• SIGNAL

signal fires was enforced by See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, no trace of vitrifaction has yet been detected . A great antiquity has been assigned to vitrified forts, without sufficient See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof . Articles of See also:

• BRONZE

bronze and See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron have been found in the Scottish forts, while in See also:

• PUY

Puy de See also:

• GAUDY

Gaudy a See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• TILE (0. Eng. tigel, Fr. tuile, connected with Lat. tegula)

tile has been discovered soldered to a piece of vitrified See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock . In a few of the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German forts See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor See also:

• VIRCHOW, RUDOLF (1821-1902)

Virchow found some of the logs used as See also:

• FUEL (O. Fr. feuaile, popular Lat. focalia, from focus, hearth, fire)

fuel in vitrifying the walls, and he concluded from the evenness of their cut surfaces that iron and not stone implements must have been used . These results indicate that these structures were possibly in use as See also:

• LATE

late as the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early centuries of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian era . It has been suggested that they were built as refuges against the Norsemen . Much in the situation and See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the forts favours this supposition . This is especially the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case with reference to the Scottish forts .

Here the vitrified summits are invariably so selected that they not only command what were the favourite landing-places of the vikings, but are the best natural defences against attacks made from the direction of the seacoast . In See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony and See also:

• LUSATIA (Ger. Lausitz)

Lusatia the forts are known as Schwedenburgen, and in the See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

Highlands of See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland as the fortresses of the Feinne designations which also seem to point to an origin dating back to the times of the vikings . J . See also:

• ANDERSON
• ANDERSON, ADAM (1692—1765)
• ANDERSON, ALEXANDER (c. 1582-1620?)
• ANDERSON, ELIZABETH GARRETT (1836— )
• ANDERSON, JAMES (1662—1728)
• ANDERSON, JAMES (1739-1808)
• ANDERSON, JOHN (1726-1796)
• ANDERSON, MARY (1859– )
• ANDERSON, RICHARD HENRY (1821–1879)
• ANDERSON, ROBERT (1750–1830)
• ANDERSON, SIR EDMUND (1530-1605)

Anderson, Scotland in See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

Pagan Times (1886); C . MacLagan, The See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill Forts of See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

Ancient Scotland; See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas Aitken, Trans . See also:

• INVERNESS

Inverness Scientific See also:

• SOC

Soc. vol. i.; See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles See also:

• PROCTOR
• PROCTOR, ALEXANDER PHIMISTER (1862– )
• PROCTOR, RICHARD ANTHONY (1837-1888)

Proctor, Chemical Analysis of Vitrified Stones from Tap o' Noth and Dunideer (See also:

• HUNTLY
• HUNTLY, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF

Huntly See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

Field See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

Club); various papers in Proceedings of Soc . Antiq . See also:

• SCOT, MICHAEL (? 1175-1232)

Scot . (since 1903 The Scottish See also:

• HISTORICAL

Historical See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review) and Proceedings of Royal Irish Academy; R . See also:

• MUNRO, HUGH ANDREW JOHNSTONE (1819-1885)
• MUNRO, MUNRO
• MUNRO, SIR HECTOR (1726-1805)
• MUNRO, SIR THOMAS (1761-1827)

Munro, Prehistoric Scotland (1899); G . See also:

• CHALMERS, ALEXANDER (1759-1834)
• CHALMERS, GEORGE (1742-1825)
• CHALMERS, GEORGE PAUL (1836-1878)
• CHALMERS, JAMES (1841-1901)
• CHALMERS, THOMAS (1780-1847)

Chalmers, See also:

• CALEDONIA

Caledonia (new ed., 7 vols., See also:

• PAISLEY
• PAISLEY, CLAUD HAMILTON, LORD (c. 1543-1622)

Paisley, 1887–94); See also:

• MURRAY
• MURRAY (or MORAY), EARLS OF
• MURRAY (or MORAY), JAMES STUART, EARL OF (c. 1531-1570)
• MURRAY (or MORAY), SIR ROBERT (c. 1600-1673)
• MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART (1841-1904)
• MURRAY, DAVID (1849– )
• MURRAY, EUSTACE CLARE GRENVILLE (1824–1881)
• MURRAY, JAMES (c. 1719-1794)
• MURRAY, JOHN
• MURRAY, JOHN (1778–1820)
• MURRAY, LINDLEY (1745–1826)
• MURRAY, LORD GEORGE (1694–1760)
• MURRAY, SIR JAMES AUGUSTUS HENRY (1837– )
• MURRAY, SIR JOHN (1841– )

Murray's Handbook to Scotland (1903 ed.) ; Leonhard, Archie See also:

• FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

fur Mineralogie, vol. i.; Virchow, Ztschr. fur Ethnologie, vols. iii. and iv.; Schaaffhausen, Ver-handlungen der See also:

• DEUTSCH, IMMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM (1829-1873)

deutsch. anthrop . Gesellschaft (1881); See also:

• KOHL

Kohl, Verhand. d. deutsch. anthrop .

Gesellschaft (1883); Thuot, La Forteresse vitrifiee du Puy de Gaudy, &c.; De Nadaillac, See also:

• LES

Les Premiers Hommes, vol. i.; Mimoires de la Soc . Antiq. de See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, vol. xxxviii.; See also:

• HILDEBRAND, LAY OF (Deis Hildebrandslied)

Hildebrand, De forhistoriska folken i See also:

• EUROPA (or rather, EUROPE)

Europa (See also:

• STOCKHOLM

Stockholm, 188o) ; Behla, See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die vorgeschichtlichen Rundwalle See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im dstlichen Deutschland (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1888) ; Oppermann and Schuchhardt, See also:

• ATLAS

Atlas vorgeschichtlicher Befestigungen in Niedersachen (See also:

• HANOVER
• HANOVER (Ger. Hannover)

Hanover, 1888–98) ; Zschiesche, Die vorgeschichtlichen Burgen and Walle im Thuringer Zentralbecken (See also:

• HALLE (known as HALLE-AN-DER-SAALE, t0 distinguish it from the small town of Halle in Westphalia)
• HALLE, SIR CHARLES (originally KARL HALLE) (1819-1895)

Halle, 1889); See also:

• BUG

Bug, Schlesische Heidenschanzen (Grottleau, 1890) ; Gohausen, Die Befestigungsweisen der Vorzeit and See also:

• DES

des Mittelalters (See also:

• WIESBADEN

Wiesbaden, 1898) . (R .