See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

VOICE (Fr. voix, from See also:

• LAT

Lat. vox)  , the See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound produced by the vibrations of the vocal cords, two ligaments or bands of fibrous elastic See also:

• TISSUE (Fr. tissu, tissue, participle of tisser, Lat. texere, to weave)

tissue situated in the larynx . It is to be distinguished from speeck, which is the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of articulate sounds intended to See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express ideas . Many of the See also:

• LOWER

lower animals have See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice, but none has the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of speech in the sense in which See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man possesses that See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty . There may be speech without voice, as in whispering, whilst in singing a See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale of musical tones we have voice without speech . (See See also:

• SONG

SONG; and for speech see See also:

• PHONETICS (Gr. Davit, voice)

PHONETICS; also the articles on the various letters of the See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet.) x . Physiological See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

Anatomy.—The See also:

• ORGAN

organ of voice, the larynx,is situated in man in the upper and fore See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck, where it forms a well-known prominence in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle See also:

• LINE

line (see details under See also:

• RESPIRATORY

RESPIRATORY See also:

• SYSTEM

SYSTEM) . It opens below into the trachea or See also:

• WINDPIPE

windpipe, and above into the cavity of the pharynx, and it consists of a framework of cartilages, connected by elastic membranes or ligaments, two of which constitute the true vocal cords . These cartilages are movable on each other by the See also:

• ACTION

action of various muscles, which thus regulate the position and the tension of the vocal cords . The trachea conveys the blast of See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air from the lungs during expiration, and the whole apparatus may be compared to an acoustical contrivance in which the lungs represent the See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind See also:

• CHEST (Gr. Kiarl, Lat. cista, O. Eng. cist, test, &c.)

chest and the trachea the See also:

• TUBE (Lat. tuba)

tube passing from the wind chest to the See also:

• SOUNDING (for derivation see SOUND above)

sounding See also:

• BODY

body contained in the larynx . Suppose two tight bands of any elastic membrane, such as thin See also:

• SHEET

sheet See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

india-See also:

• RUBBER, INDIARUBBER

rubber, stretched over the end of a wide See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass tube so that the margins of the bands touched each other, and that a powerful blast of air is driven through the tube by a See also:

• BELLOWS
• BELLOWS, ALBERT F
• BELLOWS, HENRY WHITNEY (1814-1882)

bellows . The pressure would so distend the margins of the membrane as to open the See also:

• APERTURE (from Lat. aperire, to open)

aperture and allow the air to See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape; this would cause a fall of pressure, and the edges of the membrane would See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring back by their See also:

• ELASTICITY

elasticity to their former position; again the pressure would increase, and gain the edges of the membrane would be distended, and those actions would be so quickly repeated as to cause the edges of the membrane to vibrate with sufficient rapidity to produce a musical See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone, the See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch of which would depend on the number of vibrations executed in a second of See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . In other words, there would be a rapid See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of puffs of air .

The condensation and rarefaction of the air thus produced are the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief cause of the tone, as H. von See also:

• HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND VON (1821-1894)

Helmholtz has pointed out, and in this way the larynx resembles the See also:

• SIREN

siren in its mode of producing tone . It is evident also that the intensity or loudness of the tone would be determined by the See also:

• AMPLITUDE (from Lat. amplus, large)

amplitude of the vibrations of the margins of the membrane, and that its pitch would be affected by any arrangements effecting an increase or decrease of the tension of the margins of the membrane . The pitch might also be raised by the strength of the current of air, because, the See also:

• GREAT

great amplitude of the vibrations would increase the mean tension of the elastic membrane . With tones of See also:

• MEDIUM

medium pitch, the pressure of the air in the trachea is equal to that of a See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column of See also:

• MERCURY
• MERCURY (MERCU1uus)
• MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight = 2oo)

mercury of 16o mm.; with high pitch, . 920 mm.; and with notes of very high pitch, 945 mm.; whilst in whispering it may fall as See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low vocal cords the epithelium is squamous . Patches of squamous epithelium are also found in the ciliated See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract above the glottis, on the under See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the epiglottis, on the inner surface of the See also:

• ARYTENOID

arytenoid cartilages, and on the See also:

• FREE

free border of the upper or false cords . Numerous mucous glands exist in the lining membrane of the larynx, more especially in the epiglottis . In each laryngeal pouch there are sixty to seventy such glands, surrounded by See also:

• FAT (O.E. fdett; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vet, Ger. Fett, &c., and may be ultimately related to Greek Irian, and =apos, and Sanskrit pivan)

fat . We are now in a position to understand the action of the muscles of the larynx by which the vocal cords, forming the rima glottidis, can be tightened or relaxed, and by which they can be approximated or a separated . Besides certain extrinsic muscles— sterno-hyoid, omohyoid, sterno-See also:

• THYROID (Gr. Ovpoea3i'is, shield-shaped, from Ovpeos, a large oblong shield, shaped like a door, Obpa, and eiSos, form)

thyroid and thyro-hyoid—which move the larynx as a whole, there are See also:

• INTRINSIC (through Fr. intrinsique, from Lat. intrinsecus, inwardly; inter, within, secus, following, from root of sequi, to follow)

intrinsic muscles which move the cartilages on each other . Some of 1 these are seen in fig . 5 .

These muscles are (a) the crico-thyroid, (b) the pos- to.. terior crico-arytenoid, (c) the lateral crico-arytenoid, (d) the thyro-arytenoid, td (e) the arytenoid, and (f) the arytenoepiglottidean . Their actions will be 13–readily understood with the aid of the tE, diagrams in fig . 6 . (I) The crico-thyroid is a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short thick triangular muscle, its *I.' - See also:

• FIBRES
• FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra, apparently connected either with filum, thread, or findere, to split)

fibres passing from the cricoid See also:

• CARTILAGE (Lat. cartilage, gristle)

cartilage obliquely upwards and outwards to be inserted into the lower border of the thyroid cartilage and to the See also:

• OUTER

outer border of its lower See also:

• HORN
• HORN (a common Teutonic word, cognate with Lat. cornu; cf. Gr. Kipas)
• HORN (Lat. cornu; corresponding terms being Fr. cor, trompe; Ger. Horn; Ital. corno)
• HORN, ARVID BERNHARD, COUNT (1664-1742)
• HORN, PHILIP DE MONTMORENCY, COUNT

horn . When the FIG . 5.—Muscles of the See also:

• LEFT

left See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the larynx, seen from within; See also:

• ABT, FRANZ (1819-1885)

abt. two-thirds nat. See also:

• SIZE

size . 1, hyoepiglottic See also:

• LIGAMENT (Lat. ligamentum, from ligare, to bind)

ligament, seen in See also:

• PROFILE

profile; 2, epiglottis; 3, aryteno - epiglottic muscle; 4, Santorini's cartilage ; 5, oblique arytenoid muscle; 6, trans-See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse arytenoid muscle, seen in profile; 7, posterior crico - arytenoid ; 8, lateral crico-arytenoid; 9, lower See also:

• CORNU, MARIE

cornu of thyroid cartilage cut through ; to, insertion of posterior portion of crico-thyroid muscle; II, left lamina of thyroid cartilage cut through ; 12, See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long thyroepiglottic muscle (a variety) ; 13, inferior thyroarytenoid ; 14, thyroepiglottic; 15, See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior thyro - arytenoid ; 16, median thyro-hyoid ligament . (From See also:

• KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1781—1832)

Krause.) as that represented by 30 mm. of See also:

• WATER

water . Such is a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general conception of the mechanism of voice . The cartilages See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the framework of the larynx . They consist of three single pieces (the thyroid, the cricoid and the cartilage of the epiglottis) and of three pairs (two arytenoids, two cornicula laryngis or cartilages of Santorini, and two See also:

• CUNEIFORM (from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

cuneiform cartilages or cartilages of Wrisberg), see See also:

• FIGS

figs. i and 2 . The epiglottis, the cornicula laryngis, the cuneiform cartilages and the apices of the arytenoids are composed of yellow or elastic fibro-cartilage, whilst the cartilage of all the others is of the hyaline yaline variety, resembling that of the costal or See also:

• RIB (from 0. Eng. ribb; the word appears' in many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Rippe, Swed. reb)

rib io :.__ cartilages .

These cartilages are See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound 9• • ~, together by ligaments, some of which are seen in figs . I and 2, whilst the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder are represented in fig . 3 . The ligaments specially concerned in the production of voice are the inferior thyroarytenoid ligaments, or true vocal cords . These are composed of See also:

• FINE

fine elastic fibres attached behind to the anterior See also:

• PROJECTION

projection of the See also:

• BASE

base of the arytenoid cartilages, processus vocalis, 3 in fig . 3, and in front to the middle of the See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle between the wings or laminae of the thyroid cartilage . They are practically continuous with the lateral crico-thyroid ligaments, 6 in fig . 3 . The cavity of the larynx is divided into an upper and lower portion by the narrow aperture of the glottis or chink between the edges of the true vocal cords, the rima glottidis . Immediately above the true vocal cords, between these and the false vocal cords, there is on each side a See also:

• RECESS (Lat. recessus, a going back, withdrawal, from recedere, to withdraw)

recess or pouch termed the ventricle of See also:

• MORGAGNI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1682-1771)

Morgagni, and opening from each ventricle there is a still smaller recess, the laryngeal pouch, which passes for the space of See also:

• HALF

half an See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch between the superior vocal cords in- side and the thyroid cartilage outside, reaching as high as the upper border of that cartilage at the side of the epi- glottis . The ventricles no doubt permit a free vibration of the true vocal cords . The upper aperture of the glottis is triangular, wide in front and narrow behind; and, when seen from above by means of the laryngoscope, it presents the view represented in fig .

4 . The aperture is bounded in front by the epiglottis, e, behind by the summits of the arytenoid carti- lages, ar, and on the sides by two folds of mucous membrane, the aryteno-epiglottic folds, ae . The rounded elevations corresponding to the cornicula laryngis and cuneiform cartilages, c, and also the See also:

• CUSHION (from O. Fr. coisson, coussin; according to the New English Dict., from Lat. coxa, a hip; others say from Lat. culcita, a quilt)

cushion of the epiglottis, e, are readily seen in the laryngoscopic picture . The glottis, o, is seen in the form of a long narrow fissure, bounded by the true vocal cords, ti, whilst above them we have the false vocal cords, ts, and between the true and false cords the opening of the ventricle, v . The rima glottidis, between the true vocal cords, in the adult male See also:

• MEASURES

measures about 23 mm., or nearly an inch from before backwards, and from 6 to 12 mm. across its widest part, according to the degree of See also:

• DILATATION (from Lat. dis-, distributive, and lotus, wide)

dilatation . In See also:

• FEMALES

females and in See also:

• MALES

males before See also:

• PUBERTY (Lat. pubertas, from pubes, puber, mature, adult)

puberty the antero-posterior See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter is about 17 mm. and its transverse diameter about 4 mm . The vocal cords of the adult male are in length about 15 mm., and of the adult See also:

• FEMALE

female about 11 mm . The larynx is lined with a layer of epithelium, which is closely adherent to underlying structures, more especially over the true vocal cords . The cells of the epithelium, in the greater portion of the larynx, are of the columnar ciliated variety, and by the vibratory action of the See also:

• CILIA (plural of Lat. cilium, eyelash)

cilia mucus is driven upwards, but over the truemuscle contracts, the cricoid and thyroid cartilages are approximated . In this action, however, it is not the thyroid that is depressed on the cricoid, as is generally stated, but, the thyroid being fixed in position by the action of the extrinsic muscles, the anterior border of the cricoid is See also:

• DRAWN

drawn upwards, whilst its posterior border, in consequence of a revolution around the See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis uniting the articulations between the lower cornua of the cricoid and the thyroid, is depressed, carrying the arytenoid cartilages along with it . Thus the vocal cords are stretched . (2) The thyro-arytenoid has been divided by anatomists into two parts—one, the See also:

• INTERNAL

internal, lying See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close to the true vocal See also:

• CORD (derived through the Fr. corde, from the Lat. chorda, Gr. xop(5rt, the string of a musical instrument)

cord, and the other, See also:

• EXTERNAL

external, immediately within the See also:

• ALA

ala of the thyroid cartilage .

Many of the fibres of the anterior portion pass from the thyroid cartilage with a slight See also:

• CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve (concavity inwards) to the processus vocalis at the base of the arytenoid cartilage . They are thus parallel with the true vocal cord, and when they See also:

• CONTRACT
• CONTRACT (Lat. contract us, from contrahere, to draw together, to bind)

contract the arytenoids are drawn forwards, carrying with them the posterior part of the cricoid and relaxing the vocal cords . Thus the thyro-arytenoids are the antagonists of the cricothyroids . K . F . W . See also:

• LUDWIG, KARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1816—1895)
• LUDWIG, OTTO (1813-1865)

Ludwig has pointed out that certain fibres (portioary-vocalis) arise from the side of the cord itself and pass obliquely back to the processus vocalis . These will tighten the parts of the cord in front and relax the parts behind their points of See also:

• ATTACHMENT

attachment . Some of the fibres of the outer portion run obliquely upwards from the side of the crico-thyroid membrane, pass through the antero-posterior fibres of the inner portion of the muscle, and finally end in the tissue of the false cord . These fibres have been supposed to render the edge of the cord more prominent . Other fibres inserted into the processus vocalis will rotate slightly the arytenoid outwards, whilst a few passing up into the aryteno-epiglottidean folds may assist in depressing the epiglottis (See also:

• QUAIN, SIR RICHARD, BART

Quain) . (3) The posterior and lateral crico-arytenoid muscles have antagonistic actions, and may be considered together .

The posterior arise from the posterior surface of the cricoid cartilage, and passing upwards and outwards are attached to the outer angle of the base of the arytenoid . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, the lateral arise from the upper border of the cricoid as far back as the articular surface for the arytenoid, pass backwards and upwards, and are also inserted into the outer angle of the base of the arytenoid before the attachment of the posterior crico-arytenoid . Imagine the pyramidal form of the arytenoid cartilages . To the inner angle of the triangular base are attached, as already described, the true vocal cords; and to the outer angle the two muscles in. question . The posterior crico-arytenoids draw the outer angles backwards and inwards, thus rotating the inner angles, or processus vocalis, out-wards, and, when the two muscles See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act, widening the rime glottidis . This action is opposed by the lateral crico-thyroids, which draw the outer angle forwards and outwards. rotate the inner angles inwards, 1 2, arytenoid cartilage; 3, processus vocalis of arytenoid; 4, cricoid cartilage; 5, capsular thyro-hyoid ligament; 6, lateral crico-thyroid ligament; 7, posterior crico-thyroid ligament; 8, inferior thyro-arytenoid ligament, or true vocal cord; 9, thyroid cartilage; to, superior thyro-arytenoid ligament, or false vocal cord; 11, thyro-ary- epiglottideus muscle; 12, middle thyro-hyoid ligament; 13, hyo-epi- glottic ligament; 14, body of hyoid See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone; 15, smaller cornu of hyoid bone . (From Krause.) and thus approximate the cords . (4) The arytenoids pass from the one arytenoid cartilage to the other, and in action these cartilages will be approximated and slightly depressed . (5) The aryteno-epiglottidean muscles arise near the outer angles of the arytenoid; their fibres pass obliquely upwards, decussate and are inserted partly into Flo . 6.-Diagrams explaining the action of the muscles of the larynx . The dotted lines show the positions taken by the cartilages and the true vocal cords by the action of the muscle, and the arrows show the general direction in which the See also:

• MUSCULAR

muscular fibres act . A, Action of crico-thyroid: i, cricoid cartilage; 2, arytenoid cartilage; 3, thyroid cartilage; 4, true vocal cord; 5, thyroid cartilage, new position; 6, true vocal cord, new position .

B, Action of arytenoid: i, See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of thyroid; 2, arytenoid; 3, posterior border of epiglottis; 4, true vocal cord; 5, direction of muscular fibres; 6, arytenoid, new position; 7, true vocal cord, new position . C, Action of lateral erico-arytenoid; same description as for A and B; 8, posterior border of epiglottis, new position; 9, arytenoid in new position . D, Action of posterior crico-arytenoid; same description . (From Beaunis and Bouchard.) the outer and upper border of the opposite cartilage, partly into the aryteno-epiglottic See also:

• FOLD

fold, and partly join the fibres of the thyroarytenoids . In action they assist in bringing the arytenoids together, whilst they also draw down the epiglottis, and constrict the upper aperture o( the larynx . The vocal cords will be also relaxed by the elasticity of the parts . 2 . See also:

• PHYSIOLOGY (from Gr. 4 i s, nature, and koyos, discourse)

Physiology of Voice Production.—The vocal cords are tightened by the action of the crico-thyroid, or, as it might Muscular be more appropriately termed, the thyro-cricoid mechan- muscle . It stretches the thyro-arytenoid ligaments, isms. the free edges of which, covered by mucous membrane, form the vocal cords . The adductors of the cords are the lateral crico-arytenoids, while the posterior crico-arytenoids are the abductors . The arytenoid muscle brings the cords together . Many of the fibres of the thyro-arytenoid are inserted obliquely into the sides of the cord, and in contraction they tighten the cord by pulling on the edge and making it curved instead of straight .

Some such action is indicated by the elliptical shape of the rima glottidis in passing from the chest See also:

• REGISTER

register to the middle register . Other fibres, however, See also:

• RUNNING

running parallel with the cord may tend to relax it in certain circumstances . All the muscles except the thyro-cricoid (which is innervated by the superior laryngeal) receive See also:

• NERVE (Lat. nervus, Gr. vevpov, a bowstring)

nerve filaments from the inferior laryngeal See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the vagus, the fibres being derived from the See also:

• ACCESSORY

accessory roots . Both the abductor and adductor nerves come therefore from the inferior laryngeal . When an See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal is deeply anaesthetized stimulation of the inferior laryngeal nerve causes See also:

• ABDUCTION (Lat. abductio, abducere, to lead away)

abduction of the cord, but if the See also:

• ANAESTHESIA

anaesthesia is slight, then we have adduction . The tonic contraction of the abductors is stronger than that of the adductors, so in a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest the glottis is slightly open . The centre of innervation is in the medulla oblongata, and this is dominated by a centre in the Rolandic region of the cerebral cortex . The intensity or loudness of voice depends on the amplitudeof the See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of the vocal cords . Pitch depends on the number of vibrations per second; and the length, size and degree of tension of the cords will determine the number of vibrations . The more tense the cords the higher the pitch, and the greater the length of the cords the lower will be the pitch . The range of the human voice is about three octaves—that is, from fai (87 vibrations per second) to See also:

• SOLO, OR SOLO WHIST

solo (768 vibrations) . In men, by the development of the larynx, the cords become more elongated than in See also:

• WOMEN

women, in the ratio of 3 to 2, so that the male voice is of lower pitch and owners, is usually stronger .

At the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of puberty the larynx physic) . grows rapidly, and the voice of a boy " breaks " logical in consequence of the lengthening of the cords, See also:

• CHAR (Salvelinus)

char- generally falling an See also:

• OCTAVE (from Lat. octavus, eighth, octo, eight)

octave in pitch . A similar ceders. See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change, but very much less in amount, occurs at the same See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period in the female . At puberty in the female there is an increase of about one-third in the size of the glottis, but it is nearly doubled in the male, and the adult male larynx is about one-third greater than that of the female . In advanced See also:

• LIFE

life the upper notes of the register are gradually weakened and ultimately disappear, whilst the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the voice also changes, owing to loss of elasticity caused by ossification, which first begins about middle life in the thyroid cartilage, then appears in the cricoid, and much later in the arytenoid . Eunuchs retain the voices of childhood; and by careful training it is possible in normal persons to See also:

• ARREST (Fr. arrester, arreeter, to stop or stay)

arrest the development of the larynx so that an adult male can still sing the See also:

• SOPRANO (a variant of Ital. sovrano, supreme, sovereign, Late Lat. superanus, from super, above)

soprano parts sometimes used in See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral choirs . The ranges of the different varieties of voice are shown in the following See also:

• DIAGRAM

diagram, where the dotted lines give the range of certain remarkable voices, and the figures represent vibrations per second, taking the middle C of the piano as 256 vibrations per second . A basso named Gaspard See also:

• FORSTER, FRANCOIS (179o-,872)
• FORSTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1791-1868)
• FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM (1754-1794)
• FORSTER, JOHN (1812-1876)
• FORSTER, JOHN COOPER (1823-1886)
• FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD (1818-1886)

Forster passed from fa–, to lag; the younger of the sisters Sessi had a See also:

• CONTRALTO (from Ital. contra-alto, i.e. next above the alto)

contralto voice from doe to fas; the voice of See also:

• CATALANI, ANGELICA (1780-1849)

Catalani ranged three and a half octaves; a See also:

• EUNUCH (Gr. Evvoi3Xos)

eunuch See also:

• SINGER, SIMEON (1846-1906)

singer, See also:

• FARINELLI (1705–1782)

Farinelli, passed from la1 to res; See also:

• NILSSON, CHRISTINE (1843– )

Nilsson, in Il Flank Magico, could take fas; and See also:

• MOZART, WOLFGANG AMADEUS1 (1756–1791)

Mozart states that he heard ir . See also:

• PARMA

Parma in 177o a singer, Lucrezia Ajugari, range from solo to dos, which she gave purely, whilst she could execute trills on res . The latter is the most highly pitched voice referred to in musical literature, an octave and a half above the highest See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary soprano . It will be observed that the lowest See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note of Gaspard Forster's voice is not much above the pitch at which 2048 . Upper note of Lucreeia Ajugari .

2365 . Upper note of Nilsson in I1 Flauta Magi co . 1152 . Ajugari trilled on this note . 1024 . 768 . Soeranol See also:

• MEMEL
• MEMEL, or N1EMEN

Memel-sopraiso . Contralto . Ajugari . See also:

• TENOR (through Fr. and It. from Lat. tenor, holding on, course, sense of a law, tone)

Tenor . Baritone . . Sessi .

3i octaves . : Farinsl6, 3} octaves . 64 . re do– t 32 . Beginning of musical tone . duos s See also:

• LAS

las See also:

• SOLI
• SOLI (mod. Mezetlii)

soli fas mis res dos sie las 6014 fat mice 640. res 6104 512. sit soli 435• fat mu res dot 812 Iat sots fat mil re, dot 128 . sit lal soh fat 87. mil re, do, se--i la—i sot— t fa—t 42 . mi— 1 G as... and Forster, 3 octaves 341 . _ 288 . 256 . See also:

• MID

Mid CM 240 . _192 .

16o . xo6 . piano . B the See also:

• PERCEPTION (from Lat. percipere, to perceive)

perception of musical tone begins, and that from this note to the upper note of Lucrezia Ajugari there is a range of nearly six octaves, whilst the extreme range of ordinary voices, from the lowest See also:

• BASS
• BASS (the same word as " base," and so pronounced, but influenced in spelling by the Ital. basso)

bass to the highest soprano, is a little over three octaves . It is also interesting to observe that the range of the human See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear for the perception of musical tone is from do_, to doio, or from about 32 to 32,768 vibrations per second—eleven octaves . 3 . The Voice Registers.—The voice has been divided by writers into three registers—the lower or chest, the middle and the small or See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head register . In singing, the voice changes in See also:

• VOLUME

volume and in quality in passing from one register into another . There is remarkable diversity of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion as to what happens in the larynx in passing through the various registers . There has also been much discussion as to the production of falsetto tones . Lehfeldt and Johannes See also:

• MILLER, HUGH (1802–1856)
• MILLER, JOAQUIN (CINCINNATUS HEINE) (1841- )
• MILLER, JOE (JosEPH or JosIAS( (1684-1738)
• MILLER, SAMUEL FREEMAN (1816-1890)
• MILLER, WILLIAM (1782-1849)
• MILLER, WILLIAM (1795-1861)
• MILLER, WILLIAM (1796–1882)
• MILLER, WILLIAM HALLOWES (18o1–188o)

Miller held that a weak blast of air caused only a portion of the cords, as regards length, to vibrate; M . J .

Ortel noticed that when a falsetto tone is produced nodal lines are formed in the cords parallel to their edges, an observation supporting the first contention; M . See also:

• GARCIA
• GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO), MANOEL (1775-1832)

Garcia was of opinion that as the voice See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose in pitch into falsetto only the ligamentous edges of the cords vibrated; and W . R . E . See also:

• HODGKINSON, EATON (1759-1861)

Hodgkinson showed, .by dusting finely powdered See also:

• INDIGO (earlier indico, from Lat. indicum, the Indian sub-stance or dye; the Sans. name was niti, from nila, dark blue, and this through Arab. al-nil, annil, gives " aniline ")

indigo into the larynx and observing the See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue specks with the laryngoscope, that " in the deeper note of the lower register the vibrating margin extended from the thyroid cartilage in front to a point behind the junction of the ligamentous and cartilaginous portions of the cord." In singing falsetto tones these additional parts are not thrown into action . Some remarkable and instructive photographs obtained by See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French show that in proceeding from the lowest to the highest notes of the lower register the cords became lengthened by one-eighth of an inch in a contralto singer's larynx; the same singer, in passing into the middle register, showed a shortening of the cords by one-sixteenth of an inch, and another increase in length when the upper part of the middle register was reached . 4 . See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

Condition of the Larynx in the Various Registers.—In singing, one can readily observe that the tone may appear to come chiefly from the chest, from the See also:

• THROAT (O. Eng. protu, prote or }Prota, possibly from preotan, to press, whence threat, or, with loss of initial s, connected with strut, to swell)

throat or from the head, or it may show the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar quality of tone termed falsetto . Authorities differ much in the nomenclature applied to these varieties of the voice . Thus the old See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian See also:

• MUSIC

music masters spoke of the voce di petto, voce di gola and voce di testa . Madame Seiler describes five conditions, viz. the first See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of tones of the chest register, the second series of tones of the chest register, the first series of tones of the falsetto register, the second series of tones of the falsetto register, and the head register . French writers usually refer to two registers only, the chest and the head; whilst Behnke gives three registers for male voices (lower thick, upper thick and upper thin) and five for the voices of women and See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children (lower thick, upper thick, lower thin, upper thin and small) .

These distinctions are of more importance practically than as implying any marked physiological See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences in the mechanism of the larynx during the production of the tones in the different registers . By means of the laryngoscope it is possible to see the condition of the rima glottidis and the cords in passing through all the range of the voice . In 1807 Bozzini first showed that it was possible to see into the dark cavities of the body by illumining them with a See also:

• MIRROR (through O. Fr. mirour, mod. miroir, from a sup-posed Late Lat. miratorium, from mirari, to admire)

mirror, and in 1829 W . See also:

• BABINGTON, ANTHONY (1561–1586)
• BABINGTON, CHURCHILL (1821-1889)

Babington first saw the glottis in this way . In 1854 Garcia investigated his own larynx and that of other singers, and three years later Tiirck, and especially J . N . Czermak, perfected the construction of the laryngoscope . In 1883 See also:

• LENNOX
• LENNOX, CHARLOTTE (1720-1804)
• LENNOX, MARGARET, COUNTESS OF (1515-1578)

Lennox See also:

• BROWNE
• BROWNE, EDWARD HAROLD (18,1–1891)
• BROWNE, ISAAC HAWKINS (1705-1760)
• BROWNE, JAMES (1793–1841)
• BROWNE, MAXIMILIAN ULYSSES, COUNT VON, BARON DE CAMUS AND MOUNTANY (1705-1757)
• BROWNE, PETER (?1665-1735)
• BROWNE, ROBERT (1550-1633)
• BROWNE, SIR JAMES (1839–1896)
• BROWNE, SIR THOMAS (1605-1682)
• BROWNE, WILLIAM (1591–1643)
• BROWNE, WILLIAM GEORGE (1768-1813)

Browne and Emil Behnke obtained photographs of the glottis in the living man . The laryngoscope is a small mirror, about the diameter of a See also:

• SHILLING

shilling, fixed to the end of a long handle at an angle of 125° to 130° . This mirror is gently pushed towards the back of the throat, and if sufficient See also:

• LIGHT

light be thrown into the mouth from a See also:

• LAMP (from Gr. Xag ras, a torch, Xaµaav, to shine)

lamp, and if the See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye of the observer be in the proper position, by See also:

• ANGLING

angling the small mirror it is not difficult to get a view of the glottis . The light from the lamp is reflected by the mirror down on the glottis; from this it is reflected back to the mirror, and then by the mirror it is finally reflected to the eye of the observer . Usually the observer has in front of his eye a mirror by which a powerful See also:

• BEAM
• BEAM (from the O. Eng. beam, cf. Ger. Baum, a tree, to which sense may be referred the use of " beam " as meaning the rood or crucifix, and the survival in certain names of trees, as horn-beam)

beam of lightcan be thrown from a lamp into the mouth and throat .

In the centre of the mirror there is a small hole through which the eye of the observer See also:

• SEES

sees the See also:

• IMAGE (Lat. imago, perhaps from the same root as imitari, copy, imitate)

image in the small mirror at the back of the throat . By placing a second See also:

• PLANE

plane mirror in front of the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face, an observer can easily study the mechanism of his own larynx . Suppose the picture of the larynx to be examined in the small mirror at the back of the throat, an image will be seen as in fig . 4 . During See also:

• CALM

calm breathing, the glottis is See also:

• LANCE

lance-shaped, between the yellowish See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white cords . A deep See also:

• INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into)

inspiration causes the glottis to open widely, and in favourable circumstances one may look into the trachea . When a sound is to be made, the vocal cords are brought close together, either along their whole length, as in fig . 7, or only along the ligamentous portion, the space between the arytenoids being still open, as in fig . 8 . Then when the sound begins the glottis opens (fig . 4), the form of the opening influencing the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of voice, whilst the degree of tension of the cords will determine the pitch . During inspiration the edges of the true vocal cords may occasionally be close together, as in sobbing, and during inspiration the false cords are easily separated, even when they See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch, and during expiration, owing to dilatation of the ventricles, they come together, and may readily close .

Thus, from the plane of the cords, the true cords are most easily closed during inspiration and the false cords during expiration . J . Wyllie clearly showed in 1865 that the false vocal cords See also:

• PLAY

play the chief' part in See also:

• CLOSURE (Fr. clooture)

closure of the glottis during expiration . See also:

• LAUDER
• LAUDER, SIR THOMAS DICK
• LAUDER, WILLIAM (d. 1771)

Lauder See also:

• BRUNTON, MARY (1778–1818)

Brunton and See also:

• CASH

Cash have confirmed J . Wyllie's results, and have shown further that the See also:

• FUNCTION

function of the false cords is to close the glottis and thus See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix the See also:

• THORAX (Gr. BWpaE, breastplate, also the part of the body covered by it)

thorax for muscular effort . During the production of the chest voice, the space between the arytenoid cartilages is open, and between the vocal cords there is an ellipsoidal opening which gradually closes as the pitch of the sound rises (see figs . 9, to, II) . During head voice, the opening between the arytenoids is completely closed; the portion between the vocal cords is open, but in See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of being almost a narrow straight slit as in chest voice, it is wide open so as to allow an escape of more air (see fig . 12) . See also:

• PARALYSIS, or PALSY (from Gr. aapal,6a , to relax; Wycliffe has palesy, and another old form of the word is parlesy)

Paralysis of the motor fibres causes aphonia, or loss of voice . If one cord is paralysed the voice may be lost or become falsetto in tone . Sometimes the cords may move in breathing or during coughing, but be motionless during an See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt at the production of voice .

Rarely, incomplete unilateral paralysis of the recurrent nerve, or the existence of a See also:

• TUMOUR (Lat. tumor, a swelling)

tumour on each cord, thus making them unequal in length, may cause a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double tone, or diphthongia . Hoarseness is caused by roughness or swelling of the cords . 5 . The quality of the human voice depends on the same See also:

• LAWS

laws that determine the quality, clang-tint or timbre of the tones produced by any musical See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument . Musical tones are formed by the vibrations of the true vocal cords . These tones may be either pure or mixed, and in both cases they are strengthened by the resonance of the air in the air-passages and in the pharyngeal and oral cavities . If mixed—that is, if the tone is compounded of a number of partials—one or more of these will be strengthened by the cavities above the cords acting as a resonator; and so strongly may these partials be thus reinforced that the fundamental one may be obscured, and a certain quality or timbre will be communicated to the ear . Further, Helmholtz has shown that See also:

• SPECIAL

special forms of the oral cavity reinforce in particular certain partials, and thus give a character to vowel tones, indeed to such an extent that each vowel tone may be said to have a fixed pitch . This may be proved by putting the mouth in a certain form, keeping the lips open, and bringing various tuning forks sounding feebly in front of the opening . When a See also:

• FORK (Lat. furca)

fork is found to which the resonant cavity of the mouth corresponds, then the tone of the fork is intensified, and by thus altering the form and capacity of the oral cavity its pitch in various conditions may be determined . Thus, according to Helmholtz, the pitch corresponding to the vowels may be expressed: Vowels . OU 0 A AI E I EU U Tone . fa2 sibs sibs sots sibs res doe See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole or or or or or re4 fas fa2 fa3 fa2 No. of vibrations .

170 470 940 1536 1920 2304 1024 1536 or or or or or 576 341 170 341 170 R . Koenig has fixed the pitch of the vowels differently, thus: Vowels . OU 0 A E I Tone . sib2 sibs si64 sibs si's - No. of vibrations . 235 470 940 188o 376o F . C . Donders has given a third result, differing from each of the above; and there is little doubt that much will depend on the quality of tone peculiar to different nationalities . By means of Koenig's manometric flames with revolving mirror the varying quality of tone may be illustrated: with a pure tone, the See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth in the See also:

• FLAME (Lat. flamma; the root flag- appears in flagrare, to burn, blaze, and Gr. d, XEryew)

flame-picture are equal, like the serrations of a saw, whilst usually the tone is mixed with partials which show themselves by the unequal serrations . Thus quality of voice depends, not merely on the size, degree of elasticity and general mobility of the vocal cords, but also on the form of the resonating cavities above, and very slight differences in these may produce striking results . 6 . Vowel Tones.—A vowel is a musical tone produced by the vibrations of the vocal cords . The tone produced by the vocal cords is a mixed one, composed of a fundamental and partials, and certain of the partials are strengthened by the resonance of the air in the air-passages and in the pharyngeal and oral cavities . In this respect the quality of the human voice depends on the same laws as those determining the quality or timbre of the tones produced by any musical instrument .

The pitch of the note of a musical instrument, however, depends on the pitch of the first or fundamental tone, while the partials are added with greater or less intensity so as togive a special character to the sound; and in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of a vowel tone the pitch does not appear to depend on that of the fundamental tone but on the pitch of the resonance cavity, as adjusted for the sounding of any particular vowel . When we wish to pronounce or sing a vowel the oral cavity must be adjusted to a certain form, and it is only when it has that form that the vowel can be sounded . The nature of vowel tones has been investigated by means of the See also:

• PHONOGRAPH
• PHONOGRAPH (Gr. c&JP , sound, ypacbew, to write)

phonograph by Fleeming Jenkin and See also:

• EWING
• EWING, ALEXANDER (1814-1873)
• EWING, THOMAS (1789-1871)

Ewing, L . See also:

• HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB (1772–1848)
• HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1804–1855)

Hermann, Pipping, Boeke, See also:

• LLOYD, EDWARD (1845— )
• LLOYD, WILLIAM (1627–1717)
• LLOYD, WILLIAM WATKISS (1813–1893)

Lloyd, McKendrick and others . E . W . Scripture has worked with the See also:

• GRAMOPHONE (an invented word, formed' on an inversion of " phonogram "; cbwvil, sound, ypaµµa, letter)

gramophone . These observers may be ranged in two divisions—those who uphold the theory of relative as opposed to those who contend for the theory of fixed pitch . Assuming that a vowel is always a See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound tone, composed of a fundamental and partials, those who uphold the relative pitch theory state that if the pitch of the fundamental is changed the pitch of the partials must undergo a relative change, while their opponents contend that whatever may be the pitch of the tone produced by the larynx, the pitch of the partials that gives quality or character to a vowel is always the same, or, in other words, vowel tones have a fixed pitch . Helmholtz held that all the partials in a vowel tone were See also:

• HARMONIC

harmonic to the fundamental tone, that is that their periods were See also:

• SIMPLE

simple multiples of the period of the fundamental tone . Hermann, however, has conclusively shown that many of the partials are inharmonic to the fundamental . This practically upsets the theory of Helmholtz .

The methods by which this problem can be investigated are mainly two . The pitch of the oral cavity for a given vowel may be experimentally determined, or an See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis may be made of the curve-forms of vowels on the See also:

• WAX

wax See also:

• CYLINDER (Gr. KvAwSpos, from KvXivaety, to roll)

cylinder of the phonograph or the disk of the gramophone . By such an analysis, according to See also:

• FOURIER, F
• FOURIER, FRANCOIS CHARLES MARIE (1772-1837)
• FOURIER, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH (1768-1830)

Fourier's theorem, the curve may be resolved into the partials that take part in its formation, and the intensity of those partials may be thus determined . The observations of Donders, Helmholtz, See also:

• KONIG, KARL RUDOLPH (1832-1901)

Konig and others as to the pitch of the resonating cavities gave different results . Greater success has followed the attempts made by Hermann, Boeke, McKendrick, Lloyd and Marichelle to analyse the curves imprinted on the phonograph . (Examples of such phonograms are given by McKendrick in the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article on " Vocal Sounds " in Schafer's Physiology, ii .