WEAK VERBS  . II. geminatae reigned in different countries forming a compact and not very large area—perhaps from

South Arabia to Asia Minor, and from Persia to Crete and Egypt . Whether they all sprang from one common stock of picture-writing we shall perhaps never know, nor can we as yet trace the influence which one great system may have had on another, owing to the poverty of documents from most of the countries concerned . It is certain that in Egypt from the IVth Dynasty onwards the mode of writing was essentially the same as that which was extinguished by the fall of paganism in the 4th century A.D . Its elements in the hieroglyphic form are pictorial, but each hieroglyph had one or more well-defined functions, fixed by convention in such a manner that the Egyptian language was expressed in writing word by word . Although a picture sign may at times have embarrassed the skilled native reader by offering a choice of fixed values or functions, it was never intended to convey merely an idea, so as to leave to him the task of putting the idea into his own words . How far this holds good for the period before the IVth Dynasty it is difficult to say . The known inscriptions of the earlier times are so brief and so limited in range that the system on which they were written cannot yet be fully investigated . As far back as the Ist Dynasty, phonograms (see below) were in full use . But the spelling then was very concise: it is possible that some of the slighter words, such as prepositions, were omitted in the writing, and were intended to be supplied from the context . As a whole, we gain the impression that a really distinct and more primitive stage of hieroglyphic writing by a substantially vaguer notation of words lay not far behind the time of the Ist Dynasty . The employment of the signs are of three kinds: any given sign represents either (I) a whole word or root or (2) a sound as part of a word; or (3) pictorially defines the meaning of a word the sound of which has already been given by a sign or group of signs preceding .

The number of phonograms is very restricted, but some signs have all these

powers . For instance, is the conventional picture of a draughtboard (shown in plan) with the draughtsmen (shown in elevation) on its edge:—this sign (I) signifies the root mn, " set," "firm"; or (2) in the group , represents the same sound as part of the root mnj{, " good "; or (3) added to the group .snt (thus : shows that the meaning intended is " draught- board," or " draughts," and not any of the other meanings of snt . Thus signs, according to their employment, are said to be (x) " word-signs," (2) " phonograms," or (3) " determinatives." Word-signs.—The word-sign value of a sign is, in the first place, the name of the object it represents, or of some material, or quality, or action, or idea suggested by it . Thus' is hr, "face"; II , a vase of ointment, is mrh.t, " ointment "; is wdb, " turn," Much investigation is still required to establish the origins of the values of the signs; in some cases the connexion between the pictures and the primary values seems to be curiously remote . Probably all the signs in the hieroglyphic signary can be employed in their primary sense . The secondary value expresses the consonantal root of the name or other primary value, and any, or almost any, derivative from that root: as when ,==3, a mat with a cake upon it, is not only htp, an " offering-mat," but also htp in the sense of " conciliation,' " peace," " rest," " setting " (of the sun), with many derivatives . In the third place, some signs may be transferred to express another root having the same consonants as the first: thus , the ear, by a play upon words can express not only sdm, " hear," but also sdm, " paint the eyes." Phonograms.—Only a limited number of signs are found with this use, but they are of the greatest importance . By searching through-out the whole mass of normal inscriptions, earlier than the periods of Greek and Roman rule when great liberties were taken with the writing, probably no more than one hundred different phonograms can be found . The number of those commonly employed in good writing is between seventy and eighty . The most important phonograms are the uniliteral or alphabetic signs, twenty-four in number in the Old Kingdom and without any homophones: later these were increased by homophones to thirty . Of biliteral phonograms—each expressing a combination of two consonants—there were about fifty commonly used: some fifteen or twenty were rarely used . As Egyptian roots seldom exceeded three letters, there was no need for triliteral phonograms to spell them .

There is, however, one triliteral phonogram, the

eagle,, tyw, or tiu (?), used for the plural ending of adjectives in y formed from words ending in t (whether radical or the feminine ending) . The phonetic values of the signs are derived from their word-sign values and consist usually of the bare root, though there are rare examples of the retention of a flexional ending; they often ignore also the weaker consonants of the root, and on the same principle reduce a repeated consonant to a single one, as when the hoe N , bun, has the phonetic value bn . The history of some of the alphabetic signs is still very obscure, but a sufficient number of them have been explainedto make it nearly certain that the values of all were obtained on the same principles.' Some of the ancient words from which the phonetic values were derived probably fell very early into disuse, and may, never be discoverable in the texts that have come down to us . The following are among those most easily explained: qreed flower, value y and H; from 3 1,, " reed." (It seems as if the two values y and ti were obtained by choosing first one and then the other of the two semi-consonants composing the name . They are much confused, and a conventional symbol 1 has to be adopted for rendering q.) forearm, value '(v); from D'(9), " hand." mouth, value r; from r, " mouth." belly and teats, value b; from 107, b.t, " belly." (The feminine ending is here, as usual, neglected.) tank, values; from 0, " tank." slope of earth value q; „ q",” slope," or brickwork, d d, " height." (The doubled weak consonant is here neglected.) cam, '1, cobra, value z; from , z.t, " cobra." of For some, alphabetic signs more than one likely origin might be found, while for others, again, no clear evidence of origin is yet forthcoming . It has already been explained that the writing expresses only consonants . In the Graeco-Roman period various imperfect attempts were made to render the vowels in foreign names and words by the semi - vowels as also by the consonant Y which „._ originally represented having been reduced in speech by that time to the power of K, only . Thus, HroXeµauos is spelt Ptwrmys, Antoninus, 'Nt'nynws or Intnyns, &c . &c . Much earlier, throughout the New Kingdom, a special " syllabic " orthography, in which the alphabetic signs for the consonants are generally replaced by groups or single signs having the value of a consonant followed by a semi-vowel, was used for foreign names and words, e.g . nano, "chariot," was written e in n Coptic I pe6WO'Y'T• '711o, - ~1n, " tower,” was written e O I Coptic !l.tE6TOW \ NW/VS 11 1 1 n», " harp," was written nrwv., I I I non, " Hamath," was written )84 . According to W .

Max

Muller (Asien and Europa, 1893, chap. v.), this represents an endeavour to express the vocalization; but, if so, it was carried out with very little system . In practice, the semi-vowels are generally negligible . This method of writing can be traced back into the Middle Kingdom, if not beyond, and it greatly affected the spelling of native words in New Egyptian and demotic . Determinatives.—Most signs can on occasion be used as determinatives, but those that are very commonly employed as phonograms or as secondary word-signs are seldom employed as determinatives; and when they are so used they are often somewhat differentiated . Certain generic determinatives are very common, e.g.: of motion . 5---° of acts involving force . of divinity . It seems that " acrophony " (giving to a sign the value of the first letter of its name) was indulged in only by priests of the latest age, inventing fantastic modes of writing their " vain repetitions" on the temple walls . , hand, value d; from r, d.t, " hand." of a person or a man's name . =; of buildings . of inhabited places . Mil; of foreign countries .

club; of foreigners . of all actions of the mouth—eating and speaking, likewise jj silence and hunger. vvww wvwe ; ripple-lines; of liquid. vvvvw hide; of animals, also leather, &c . of plants and fibres . Q ; of flesh . a sealed papyrus-roll; of books, teaching, law, and of abstract ideas generally . In the earliest inscriptions the use of determinatives is restricted to the , jl, &c., after proper names, but it developed immensely later, so that few words beyond the particles were written without them in the normal style after the Old Kingdom . Some few signs ideographic of a group of ideas are made to express particular words belonging to that group by the aid of phonograms which point out the special meaning . In such cases the ideogram is not merely a determinative nor yet quite a word - sign . Thus 1 __ n ," Semite," 1 0 ' 1 1 I I "Libyan," &c., but 1 cannot stand by itself for the name of any particular foreign people . So also in monogram 1p is sm " go," -- is " conduct." Orthography.—The most primitive form of spelling in the hieroglyphic system would be by one sign for each word, and the monuments of the Ist Dynasty show a decided tendency to this mode . Examples of it in later times are preserved in the royal cartouches, for here the monumental style demanded special consciseness . Thus, for instance, the name of Tethmosis III.—MN-FJPR-R'—is spelled Cp g) (as R' is the name of the sun-god, with customary deference to the deity it is written first though pronounced last) .

A number of common words—prepositions, &c.—with only one consonant are spelled by single alphabetic signs in

ordinary writing . Word-signs used singly for the names of objects are hr, " face," &c . But the use of bare word-signs is not ,common . Flexional consonants are almost always marked by phonograms, except in very early times; as when the feminine word'' =z.t, "cobra," is spelled Also, if a sign had more than one value, a phono- c gram would be added to indicate which of its values was intended: thus ; in 1 is iw, " he," but in 1 it is stn, " king." Further, ~~1111.. o owing to the vast number of signs employed, to prevent confusion of one with another in rapid writing they were generally provided with " phonetic complements," a group being less easily misread than a single letter . E.g . 1, wz, " command," is regularly written wz (w) ;but 1, hz, " white," is written I hz(z) . This practice had the advantage also of distinguishing determinatives From phonograms . Thus the root or syllable Izn is regularly written 1 vt to avoid confusion with the determinative . Redundance (b)b'(0) . Biliteral phonograms are very rare as phonetic complements, nor are two biliteral phonograms employed together in writing the radicals of a word . Spelling of words purely in phonetic or even alphabetic characters is not uncommon, the determinative being generally added . Thus in the pyramidal texts we find hpr, " become," written in one copy of a text, in another ~~ .

Such variant spellings are very important for fixing the readings of word-signs . It is noteworthy that though words were so freely spelled in alphabetic characters, especially in the time of the Old Kingdom, no advance was ever made towards excluding the cumbersome word-signs and biliteral phonograms, which, by a judicious use of determinatives, might well have been rendered quite superfluous . Abbreviations.—We find -Ye [1, strictly 'nh z> .t

standing for the monogram is , i.e. and for H•t-Hrw " Hathor." A word-sign may be compounded with its phonetic complement, as hz " white," or with its determinative, as hz "silver." The table on the opposite page shows the uses of a few of the commoner signs . The decorative value of hieroglyphic was fully appreciated in Egypt . The aim of the artist-scribe was to arrange his variously shaped characters into square groups, and this could be done in great measure by taking advantage of the different ways in which many words could be spelt . Thus its could be written 1 , hsy q q, . hs f - hs-n f NVWSA But some words in the lassical writing zi.., were intractable from this point of view . It is obvious that the alphabetic signs played a very important part in the formation of the groups, and many words could only be written in alphabetic signs . A great advance was therefore made when several homophones were introduced into the alphabet in the Middle and New Kingdoms, partly as the result of the wearing away of old phonetic distinctions, giving the choice between ~— and p, e and and navw^ and , and Q . In later times the number of homophones in use increased greatly throughout the different classes, the tendency being much helped by the habit of fanciful writing; but few of these homophones found their way into the cursive script . Occasionally a scribe of the old times indulged his fancy in •"' sportive " or " mysterious " writing, either inventing new signs or employing old ones in unusual meanings . Short sportive inscriptions are found in tombs of the XIIth Dynasty; some groups are so written cursively in early medical papyri, and certain' religious inscriptions in the royal tombs of the XIXth and XXth Dynasties are in secret writing .

Fanciful writing abounds on the temples of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods . ,

PALAEOGRAPHY Hieroglyphic.—The main division is into monumental or epigraphic hieroglyphs and written hieroglyphs . The former may be rendered by the sculptor or the painter in stone, on wood, &c., with great delicacy of detail, or may be simply sunk or painted in outline . When finely rendered they are of great value to the student investigating the origins of their values . No other system of writing bears upon its face so clearly the history of its development as the Egyptian; yet even in this a vast amount of work is still required to detect, and disentangle the details . Monumental hieroglyphic did not cease till the 3rd century A.D . (Temple of Esna) . The written hieroglyphs, formed by the scribe with the reed pen on papyrus, leather, wooden tablets, &c., have their outlines more or less abbrevi ated, producing eventually the cursive scripts hieratic and demotic . The written hieroglyphs were employed at all periods, especially for religious texts . Hieratic.-A kind of cursive hieroglyphic or hieratic writing is found even in the Ist Dynasty . In the Middle Kingdom it is well generally marked with I in classical writing, as -0, lb, " heart," in writing is the rule; for instance, b is often spelled j ceremonial viva ! >nli wz, snb .

"

Life, Prosperity and Health," and in course of time '' was used in accounts instead of PA dmz, " total." Monograms are frequent and are found from the earliest times . Thus JJ , -f- mentioned above are monograms, the association of CI= and .1.\ having no pictorial meaning . Another common Sign . I Description . Name . Word-sign Phonetic Determinative Value . Value . Value . ~J) child hrd (khrod) youth ' face br (bor) br [br] .47>" eye ir.t (yori.t) lr it see, &c . mouth r (ro) r r forearm .('ei) [action of hand or arm] L=o arm with nbt " be strong " nbt violent action stick man with nbt " be strong " nbt violent action stick sm; sm; lungs and windpipe heart Lb heart heart and ? nfr windpipe sparrow ? sr in evil, worthless- widgeon s;.t s; bb ness, smallness bolti-fish In.t in bite, &c . tusk (I) Lbb " tooth " bb p cut branch (2) bw " taste " bw [bt] wood, tree threshing- bt bt floor sp.t sp 0 sun (I) r'"sun" (I) sun chamber, (2) hrw " day " (2) division of time J house pr pr ' flat land t' t' t' (boundless hori- I) libation bs.t bs bs zon, eternity vase wz wz wz cord on stick \~ basket nb.t nb C25 looped ? k k basket sickle ? m' m, tillage composite [mr ?] mr mr fire-drill z•.t(?) z' z' attendant's sms "follow " sms equipment 'O.-- knife ds dg cut, prick, cut- ting instrument characterized, and in its most cursive form seems hardly to retain any definable trace of the original hieroglyphic pictures . The style varies much at different periods .

Demotic.—Widely varying degrees of cursiveness are at all periods observable in hieratic; but, about the XXVIth Dynasty, which inaugurated a great commercial era, there was something like a definite parting between the uncial hieratic and the most cursive form afterwards known as demotic . The employment of hieratic was thenceforth almost confined to the copying of religious and other traditional texts on papyrus, while demotic was used not only for all business but also for writing

literary and even religious texts in the popular language . By the time of the XXVth Dynasty the cursive of the conservative Thebais had become very obscure . A better form from Lower Egypt drove this out completely in the time of Amasis II. and is the true demotic . Before the Macedonian con-quest the cursive ligatures of the old demotic gave birth to new symbols which were carefully and distinctly formed, and a little later an epigraphic variety was engraved on stone, as in the case of the [HIEROGLYPHICS ; ' ETC . Rosetta stone itself . One of the most char acteristic distinctions of later demotic is the minuteness of the writing . Hieroglyphic is normally written from right to left, the signs facing to the commencement of the line; hieratic and demotic follow the same direction . But monumental hieroglyphic may also be written from left to right, and is constantly so arranged for purposes of symmetry, e.g. the inscriptions on the two jambs of a door are frequently turned in opposite directions; the same is frequently done with the short inscriptions scattered over a scene amongst the figures, in order to distinguish one label from another . In modern founts of type, the hieroglyphic signs are made to run from left to right, in order to facilitate the setting where European text is mixed with the Egyptian . The table on next page shows them in their more correct position, in order to display more clearly their relation to the hieratic and demotic equivalents . Clement of Alexandria states that in the Egyptian schools the pupils were first taught the " epistolographic " style of writing (i.e. demotic), secondly the " hieratic " employed by the sacred scribes, and finally the " hieroglyphic " (Strom. v .

657) . It is doubtful whether they classified the signs of the huge hieroglyphic syllabary with any strictness . The only native work on the writing that has come to

light as yet is a fragmentary papyrus of Roman date which has a table in parallel columns of hieroglyphic signs, with their hieratic equivalents and words written in hieratic de-scribing them or giving their values or meanings . The list appears to have comprised about 46o signs, including most of those that occur commonly in hieratic . They are to some extent classified . The bee heads the list LL&I as a royal sign, and is followed by figures of nobles and other human figures in various attitudes, more or less grouped among themselves, animals, reptiles and fishes, scorpion, animhls again, twenty-four alphabetic characters, parts of the human body carefully arranged from to J, thirty-two in number, parts of animals, celestial signs, terrestrial signs, vases . The arrangement down to this point is far from strict, and beyond it is almost impossible to describe concisely, though there is still a rough grouping of characters according to resemblance of form, nature or meaning . It is a curious fact that not a single bird is visible on the fragments, and the trees and plants, which might easily have been collected in a compact and well-defined section, are widely scattered . Why the alphabetic characters are introduced where they are is a puzzle; the order of these is:— es U (?) t (?) P (?) —"— (?) — — TIToT (?) • Z 6 (?) o _ aII® '(?)q Three others, 4at~ and &co.., had already occurred amongst the fish and reptiles . There seems to be no logical aim in this arrangement of the alphabetic characters and the series is incomplete . Very probably the Egyptians never constructed a really systematic list of hieroglyphs . In modern lists the signs are classified according to the nature of the objects they depict, as human figures, plants, vessels, instruments, &c .

Horapollon's Hieroglyphica may be cited as a native work, but its author, if really an Egyptian, had no knowledge of good writing . His

production consists of two elaborate complementary lists: the one describing sign-pictures and giving their meanings, the other cataloguing ideas in order to show how they could be expressed in hieroglyphic . Each seems to us to be made up of curious but perverted reminiscences eked out by invention ; but they might some day prove to represent more truly the usages of mystics and magicians In designing amulets, &c., at a time approaching the middle ages . Demotic . Hieratic . Hieroglyphic . art, " who " . . . .) 7 4 q i+ new% my Perso ("Pharaoh ") . 4014) )j t I v^•_) // Pero <nly wa, bib yot, "father " raI - J . ~j„ ttf 'onkh, " live" 6I * <n~f j G 4 ekh, " know " . . ahe, " stand " .

. c 4. t7

ate, <b< a° g eine, " carry " . . 2r– ft to ms (phon.) . . . '{4~ 111 ms s (alph.) . . . . ...I n .. s s (alph.) . . . . !~ q m (alph.) . . , ) m n (alph.) . . . • ~- nnn % n Mastaba of Ptahhete and Akhethetep, pt. i .

(1900); M . A .

Murray, Saqqara Mastabas (London, 1905) ; also .Petrie and Griffith, Two Hieroglyphic Papyri from Tanis (London, 1889) (native sign-list) ; G . Moller, Hieratische Paloographie (Leipzig, 1909) ; Griffith, Catalogue of Demotic Papyri in the J . Rylands Collection (Manchester, 1909) . (F . L1 .. G.) E . Art and Archaeology . —In the following sections a general history of the characteristics of Ancient Egyptian art is first given, showing the variation of periods and essentials of style; and this is followed by an account of the use made of material products, of the tools and instruments employed, and of the monuments . For further details see also the separate topographical headings (for excavations, &c.), and the general articles on the various arts and art-materials (for references to Egypt); also PYRAMIDS; MUMMY, &c . The early scribe's outfit, often carried slung over his shoulder, is seen in the hieroglyph .

It consisted of frayed reed pens or brushes, a small pot of

water, and a palette with two circular cavities in which black and red ink were placed, made of finely powdered colour solidified with gum . In business and literary documents red ink was used for contrast, especially in headings; in demotic, however, it is very rarely seen . The pen became finer in course of time, enabling the scribe to write very small . The split reed of the Greek penman was occasionally adopted by the late demotic scribes . Egypt had long been bilingual when, in papyri of the 2nd century A.D., we begin to find transcripts of the Egyptian language into Greek letters, the latter reinforced by a few signs borrowed from the demotic alphabet : so written we have a magical text and a horoscope, probably made by foreigners or for their use . The infinite superiority of the Greek alphabet with its full notation of vowels was readily seen, but piety and custom as yet barred the way to its full adoption . The triumph of Christianity banished the old system once and for all; even at the beginning of the 4th century the native Egyptian script scarcely survived north of the Nubian frontier at Philae; a little later it finally expired . The following eight signs, however, had been taken over from demotic by the Copts: from 1'#Tl s;, dem . 2 =h, probably from hw (ory h;), dem . Ib (Boh.) = 4, from 1 ll;, dem . (Akhm.) ={y, from " o 4yy, {lt, dem . 3 .

C =f, from 2cd f, dem . 6 = c, from k (oor_®~ ll), dem. cm- , =g, from ^ d; (or t;),dem . 1 J.~ . nYa—~ =ti, from Aa dy•t, dem . ~' . For origins of hieroglyphs, see Petrie's Medum (1892); F . LI . Griffith, A Collection of Hieroglyphs (1898); N. de G .

Davies, The IX . 3General Characteristics . The wide and complex subject of Egyptian art will be treated here in six periods: Prehistoric, Early Kings, Pyramid Kings, XIIth Dynasty, XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties, XXVIth Dynasty and later . In each age will be considered the (A) statuary, (B) reliefs, (C) painting .

Prehistoric.—The earliest civilized

population of Egypt was highly skilled in mechanical accuracy and regularity, but had little sense of organic forms . They kept the unfinished treatment of the limbs and extremities which is so characteristic of most barbaric art; and the action was more considered than the form . (A) In the round there are in the earlier graves female figures of two races, the Bushman type and European, both probably representing servants or slaves . These have the legs always united, sloping to a point without feet (Plate I. fig . 1); the arms are only stumps . The face has a beaky nose and some indication of eyes . Upon the surface is colouring; red for the Bushman, with black whisker though female; white for the European type, with black tattoo patterns . Other female figures are modelled in a paste, upon a stick, and the black hair is sometimes made separately to fit on as a wig over the red head, showing that wigs were then used . Male figures are generally only heads in the earlier times . Tusks with carved heads (Plate I. figs . 2, 3) are the earliest, beginning at S.D . (sequence date) 33; heads on the top of combs are found, from S.D .

42 to the

close of such combs in the fifties . All of these heads show a high forehead and a pointed beard; and such expression as may be discovered is grave but not savage . In later times whole figures of ivory, stone and clay are found, with the legs united, and the arms usually joined to the body . A favourite way of indicating the eyes was by drilling two holes and inserting a white shell bead in each . The figures of animals (Plate I. figs . 4, 5) are quite as rude as the human figures: they only summarily indicate the 1 In the prehistoric age when absolute dating is out of reach a " sequence dating " by means of the sequence of types in pottery, , tools, &c., has been proposed in Petrie's Diospolis Parva, pp . 4 et sqq . The earliest prehistoric graves yet known are placed at S.D . 30, and shortly before S.D . 8o the period of the first historic dynasty is entered . II mature, and often hardly express the genus . They are most usual on combs and pins; but sacred animals are also found .

The

lion is the most usual (Plate I. fig . 7), but the legs are roughly marked, if at all: the leonine air is given, but the attitude is, more distinct than the form . The hawk (Plate I. fig . 6) is modelled in block without any legs . The slate palettes in the form of animals are even more summary, and continually degraded until they lost all trace of their origin . There are also curious figures of animals chipped in flint, which show some, character, but no detail . (B) Reliefs with animal figures belong to the Iater part of the prehistoric age . The relief is low, and the form hatched across with lines (Plate I. fig . 8), a style copied from drawing . Thette is more animation than in the round figures . At the close of this age the fashion of long processions of animals appears (Plate I. fig . 9); some character is shown in these, but no sense of action .

(C) Drawing is found from the earliest

civilization, donee in white slip on red vases . Figures of men are very rare (Plate I. fig. ro); they have the body triangular, the waist being very narrow; the legs are two lines linked by a zigzag, as if to express that they move to and fro . The usual figures are goats and hippopotami; always having the body covered with cross lines to express the connexion of the outlines (Plate I. fig. ri) . This technique is in every way closely akin to that of the modern Kabyle . An entirely different mode is common at a later time when designs were painted in thin red colour on a light brown ware . The subjects of the earlier of these examples are imitations of cordage, of marbling, and of basket-work; later there are rows of men and animals, and ships (Plate I. figs . 12, 13), with various minor signs . The figures are never cross-hatched as in earlier drawing, but always filled in altogether . The fact that the ships have oars and not sails makes it probable that they were rather for the sea than for Nile traffic, and a starfish among the motives on such pottery also points to the sea connexion . The ulterior meaning of the decoration is probably religious and funereal, but the objects which are figured must have been familiar . For this whole period see Jean Capart, Debuts de fart en Egypte (1904; trans . Primitive Art in Ancient Egypt) .

The Early Kings.—The dynastic

race wrought an entire transformation in the art of Egypt; in place of the clumsy and undetailed representations, there suddenly appears • highly artistic work, full of character, action and anatomical detail . (A) The earliest statues of this age are the colossi of the god Min from Coptos; that they belong to the artistic race is evident from the spirited reliefs upon them (see below, B), but the figures were very rude, the legs and arms being joined all in the mass . The main example of this early art is a limestone head of a king (Plate I. figs . 15, 16), which is a direct study from life, to serve as a model . For the accuracy of the facial curves, and the grasp of character and type, it is equal to any Iater work; and in its entire absence of conventions and its pure naturalism there is no later sculpture so good: as Prof . A . Michaelis says, " it renders the race type with astounding keenness, and shows an excellent power of observation in the exact representation of the eyes." By the portrait, it is probably of King Narmer or some king related to him, that is, about the beginning of the Ist Dynasty . The ivory statuette of an aged king (Plate I. fig . 14) is probably slightly later . It shows the same subtle sense of character, and is unsurpassed in its reality . Many ivory figures of men, women and animals are known from Nekhen (Hieraconpolis) and Abydos; and they all show the same school of work, simple, dignified, observant, and with an air which places them on a higher plane of truthfulness,and precision than later art . There is none of the mannerism of a long tradition, but a nobility pervades them which has no self-consciousness .

The lower class of work of this age is shown by great

numbers of glazed pottery figures both human and animal . Later in the IInd Dynasty, the head of Khasekhem (Plate I. fig . 17) shows the beginning of convention, but yet has a delicacy about the mouth which surpasses later works . (B) Reliefs abound at this age, and include the most important evidences of the development of the art . The earliest examples are those of animals (Plate II. fig. i8) and shells on the colossi of Coptos . They show a keen sense of form, and the stag's head, which is probably the earliest, already bears an artistic feeling *holly different to that of any of the prehistoric works (P.K. iii. iv) . ; The. carvings on, slate palettes appear to begin with work crudely accurate and forceful, the heavy limbs being ridged with tendons and muscles (Plate II. fig . 19), but there is more pro-portion, with the same massive strength (Plate II. fig . 20) . Soon after, with a leap, the artist produced the first pure work of art that is known (Plate II. fig . 2t), a design for its own sake without the tie of 'symbolism or history . The group of two long-necked gazelles facing a palm tree is of extraordinary refinement, and shows the., artistic consciousness in every part; the symmetric rendering of the palm tree, reduced to fit the scale of the animals, the dainty grace of the smooth gazelles contrasted with the rugged stem, the delicacy of the long flowing curves and the fine indications of the joints, all show a sense of design which has rarely been equalled in the ceaseless repetitions of the tree and supporters, motive during every age since .

Passing the various palettes with

hunting scenes and animals (Plate II. fig . 22), we come to the great historical carving of King Narmer (Plate II. fig . 23) . Here the anatomy has reached its limits for such work; the precision of the muscles on the inner and outer sides of the leg, of the uniform grip in the left arm, and the tense muscle upholding the right arm, prove that the artist knew that part of his work perfectly . The large ceremonial mace-heads recording the Sed festivals of the king Narmer and another, belong also to this school; but owing to their smaller size they have not such artistic detail . With them were found many reliefs in ivory, on tusks, wands and cylinders . The main motive in these is a long procession of animals (Plate II. figs . 24, 25) often grotesquely crowded; but there is much observation shown and the figures are expressive . No drawing of this age has survived . The Pyramid Kings.—A different ideal appears in the pyramid times; in place of the naturalism of the earlier work there is more regularity, some convention, and the sense of a school in the style . The prevailing feeling is a noble spaciousness both in scale and in form, an equanimity based upon knowledge and character, a grandeur of conception expressed by severely simple execution . There is nothing superfluous, nothing common, nothing trivial .

The smallest as well as the largest work seems

complete, inevitable, immutable, without limitations of time, or labour or thought: (A) The statuette of Khufu or Cheops (Plate III. fig . 29) though only a minute figure in ivory, shows the character of immense energy and will; the face is an astonishing portrait to be expressed in a quarter of an inch . The life-size statue of Khafre or Chephren (Plate III. fig . 30) is a majestic work, serene and powerful; carved in hard diorite, yet unhesitating in execution . The muscular detail is full, but yet kept in harmony with the massive style of the figure . The private persons have entirely different treatment according to the character of their position . In place of the awful dignity of the kings there is the placid high-bred Princess Nofri (Plate II. fig . 27, Plate III. fig . 31), the calm conscientious dignitary Hemset (Plate III. fig . 32), the bustling, active, middle-class official, Ka-aper (Plate II. fig . 28, Plate III. fig . 33), and the kneeling figure of a servitor .

The

differences of character are very skilfully rendered in all the sculpture of this age . The whole figures are stiff in the earlier time, as the figure of Nes; then square and massive, but true in form, as Rahotp and Nofri (Plate II. fig . 27); and afterwards easier and less monumental, as Ka-aper (Plate II. fig . 28) . The skill in beaten copper work is shown by the portrait of the Prince Mer-en-ra (Plate III. fig . 35) . (B) The reliefs are quite equal to the statuary . The wooden panels of Hesi (Plate II. fig . 26) show the archaic style of great detail, with a bold, stark vigour of attitude . Later work is abundant in the tomb-sculptures of this age, with a fulness of variety and detail which makes them the most interesting of all branches of the art . The general effect cannot be judged without a large scene, but the figures of two men and an ox (Plate III. fig . 39) show the freshness and vigour of the style, which is even higher than this in some examples .

The clear, noble spacing of the surface work is well shown by a group of offerings and inscribed titles (Plate III. fig . 36) . (C) Flat drawings of this age are rare . Some fine examples, such as the geese from Me-

dam, show that such work kept pace with the reliefs; but most of the fresco-work has perished, and there are few instances of line drawing . The XIIth Dynasty.—This age overlaps the previous in its style . The end of the last age was in the very degraded tomb work of the early XIth Dynasty . (A) The new style begins with the royal statues, which it seems we must attribute to the foreign kings from whom the XIIth Dynasty was descended . These statues were later appropriated by the Hyksos, and so came to be called by their name, which is a misnomer . The type of face (Plate III. fig . 38) is thick-featured, full of force, with powerful masses of facial muscle covering the skull . The style is very vigorous and impassioned, without any trace of relenting towards conventional work . The surfaces are not in the least subdued by a general breadth of style, as in the last period; but, on the contrary, revel in the full detail of variety .

There is perhaps no age where nature is so little controlled by convention in either the living character or its sculptured expression . One of these kings might well be the founder of the IXth Dynasty, " Achthoes (Kheti), who did much injury to all the inhabitants," " Khuther

Taurus the tyrant "; the expression is that of a Chlodwig or an Alboin . From this type evidently descended the milder and more civilized kings of the XIIth Dynasty, the resemblance being so strong that the fierce figures have even been identified with that dynasty by some . A good example is that of the statue of Amenemhat (Amenemhe) III . (Plate III. fig . 39)• The style of the XIIth Dynasty may be summed up as clean, highly-finished work, strong in facial detail; but with neither the grandeur of the IVth nor the vivacity of the XVIIIth Dynasty . This passed in the XIIIth Dynasty into a graceful but weak manner, as in the statues of Sebkhotp (Sebek-hotep) III. and Neferhotp . (B) The relief work shows most clearly the rise of the new style . In the middle of the XIth Dynasty an entirely fresh treatment appears; the Old Kingdom work had died out in very bad sunk-reliefs, the fresh style (Plate III. fig . 41) was a low relief with sharp edges above the field . It was full of delicate variety in the surfaces, and of elaborated close-packed lines of hair and ornaments . By the time of the early XIIth Dynasty, this reached a perfection of refinement in the detail of facial curves, with an ostentatiously low relief (P.K. ix. i.), rather on the lines of modern French work; but the whole with clean, firm outlines, severely restrained in the expression, and without any trace of emotion .

It is the work of a school, in which high training took the place of the reliance on nature . Sunk relief was also well used, as by Senusert (Senwosri) I . (Plate III. fig . 40) . There was a steady decline during the XIIth Dynasty and onward, but the same

tone was followed . (C) In some tombs painting only was used, and it followed the general character of the relief treatment, being more rigid, de-tailed, and scholastic than the older style . The XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties.—The obvious, not to say superficial, character of this age has rendered it one of the most popular in Egyptian art . The older breadth, fulness, and vigour have vanished, those great qualities which stamp the immortal works of early times . The difference is much like that between the Parthenon and the Niobids, or between Jacopo Avanzi and Caracci . In this change is the whole difference between the art of character and the art of emotion; and though the emotional side is the more popular, as needing less thought to understand it, yet the unfailing canon is that in every age and land the true quality of art is proportionate to the expression of character as apart from transient emotion . This may perhaps apply to other arts as well as to sculpture and painting . If we accept frankly the emotional nature of this age, we may admire its graceful outlines,its vivacious manner, its romantic style, with an occasional sauciness which is amusing and attractive .

It revelled in

rich detail, and close masses of lines, as in wigs and ribbed dresses . It sported with a seductive Syrian type of face, especially under Amenophis (Amenhotep) III.; but we find the anatomy giving way to mere smoothness of surface, for the sake of contrast with the masses of detail . The romantic element increased, solemn funereal statues show husband and wife hand in hand; and it culminated under Akhenaton, who is seen kissing his wife in the chariot, or dancing her on his knee . An overwhelming naturalism swamped the older reserves of Egyptian art, and the expression of the postures, actions and familiarities of daily life, or the instantaneous attitudes of animals, became the dernier cri of fashion . It was all charming and wonderful, but it was the end,—nothing could come after it . The XIXth Dynasty, at its best under Seti I., could only excel in high finish of smoothness and graceful curves; life, character, meaning, had vanished . And soon after, under Rameses II., mere mechanical copying, hard lifeless routine of stone-cutting, regardless of truth and of nature, dominated the whole . (A) In sculpture there is a certain baldness of style at first, as in the Amenophis I. at Turin or Mutnefert at Cairo . More fulness and richness of character succeeded, as in Tahutmes (Tethmosis) III. and Amenophis III . (Plate IV. fig . 42, British Museum) . And the feeling of the age finds greater scope in private statues, many of which have a personal fascination about them, as in the seated figures at Cairo and Florence, and the freer work in wood, of which the ebony negress (Plate IV. fig .

45) is the best example . The burst of naturalism under Akhenaton resulted in some marvellous

portraiture, of which the fragment of a queen's head (Plate IV. fig . 43) is perhaps the most brilliant instance; the fidelity in the delicate curves of the nose and around the mouth is enhanced by the touch of artistic convention in the facing of the lips . The only work of ability in the XIXth Dynasty is the black granite figure (Plate IV. fig . 44) of Rameses II. at Turin . The ordinary statuary of his reign is painfully stiff and poor, and there is no later work in the period worth notice . (B) The reliefs of the early XVIIIth Dynasty are closely like the scenes of the tombs in the pyramid age, but soon carving was superseded by the cheaper painting, and but few tombs in relief are known . The temples were the principal places for reliefs; and they steadily deteriorate from the first great example, Deir el Bahri (see ARCHITECTURE: Egyptian), down to the late Ramessides . The portraiture is strong and clear-cut (Plate IV. fig . 46), but somewhat mechanical and without muscular detail: the sameness is rather more than is probable . There is a good deal of repetition for mere effect, even in the fine work of Khaem-hat '(Plate IV. fig . 47), under Amenophis III .

That the artists were conscious of their poverty of thought is shown by some precise imitations of the style of early monuments . On reaching the age of Akhenaton, the

peculiar style of that school is obvious in every relief; the older conventions were deserted, and, for good or for bad, a new start from nature was attempted . After that the smooth finish of the Seti reliefs at Abydos (Plate IV. fig . 48) shows no life or observation; and only occasionally the artist triumphed over the stone-worker, as in the portrait of Bantanta at Memphis, which is precisely like another head of her found in Sinai . The innumerable reliefs of the XIXth-XXth Dynasty temples are only of historic interest, and are all despicable in comparison with earlier works . (C) Painting was the art most congenial to this age; the lightness of touch, abundance of incident, and even comedy, of the scenes are familiar in the frescoes in the British Museum . And under Akhenaton this was pervaded by an entire natural-ism of posture, as seen in the two little princesses (Plate IV. fig . 49) . Drawing continued to be the strong point of the art after the more laborious sculpture had lost all vitality . The tomb of Seti shows exquisitely firm line drawing; and the heads of four races (Plate IV. fig . 50), Western, Syrian, and two Negro, here show the unfailing line-work which has never been matched in later times . The artist habitually drew the long lines of whole limbs without a single hesitation or revoke; and the drawing of a tumbling girl (Plate IV. fig .

51) shows how credibly such contortions could be represented . The comic papyri of the XXth Dynasty have also a very strong sense of character, even through coarse drawing and some childish combinations . The subsequent centuries show continuous decline, and in whatever branch we compare the work, we see that each dynasty was poorer than that which preceded it . The XXVIth Dynasty is often looked on as a

renaissance; but when we compare similar work we see that it was poorer than the XXIInd, as that was poorer than the XIXth . The alabaster statue of Amenardus of the XXVth is faulty in pose, and perfunctory in modelling; the resemblance between this and the head of her nephew Tirhaka is perhaps the best evidence of truthful work . After this there was a strong archaistic fashion, much like that under Hadrian; in both cases it may have arrested decay, but it did not lift the art up again . The work of this age can always be detected by the faulty jointing (Plate IV. fig . 52) and muscular treatment . The elements are right enough, but there was not the vital sense to combine them properly . Hence the monstrous protuberances (Plate IV. fig . S3) on relief figures of this age; a fault which the Greek fell into in his decline, as shown in the Farnese Hercules . Portraiture, with its limited demand on imagination and lack of ideals, w Ls the form of art which flourished latest .

The Saitic heads in

basalt show a school of close observation, with fair power of rendering the personal character; and even in Roman times there still were provincial artists who could model a face very truthfully, as is shown in one case in which the stucco head (Plate IV. fig . 54) from a coffin is here superposed on the view of the actual skull to show the accuracy of the work . The school of portrait-painting belongs entirely to Greek art, and is therefore not touched upon here . (See Edgar, Catalogue of Graeco-Egyptian Coffins, 48 plates, for this subject.) Lastly we must recognize the different schools of Egyptian sculpture which are as distinct as those of recent painting . The black-granite school in every age is the finest; its seat we do not know, but its vitality and finish always exceed those of contemporary works . The limestone school was probably the next best, to judge from the reliefs, but hardly any statues of this school have survived; it probably was seated at Memphis . The quartzite work from Jebel Ahmar near Cairo stands next, as often very fine design is found in this hard material . The red granite school of Assuan comes lower, the work being usually clumsy and with unfinished corners and details . And the lowest of all was the sandstone school of Silsila, which is always the worst . Broadly speaking, the Lower Egyptian was much better than the Upper Egyptian; a conclusion also evident in the art of the tombs done on the spot . But the secret of the black granite school, and its excellence, is the main problem unsolved in the history of the art . (W .

M . F . P.) Tools and Material Products . Tools (see Illustrations r to 'W.—The history of tools is a very large subject which needs to be studied for all countries; the various details of form are too numerous to specify here, but the general outline of tools used in Egypt may be briefly stated under general and special types . The general include tools for striking, slicing and scraping; the special tools are for fighting, hunting,

agriculture, building and thread-work . Striking Tools.—The wooden mallet of club form (r) was used in the Vith and XIIth Dynasties; of the modern mason's form (2) in the Xllth and XVIIIth . The stone mace head was a sharp-edged disk (3), in the prehistoric from 31-40 sequence date; of the pear shape (4) from S.D . 42, which was actually in use till the IVth Dynasty, and represented down to Roman time . The metal or stone hammer with a long handle was unknown till Greek or Roman times; but, for beating out metal, hemispherical stones (5) were held in the hand, and swung at arm's length overhead . Spherical hard stone hammers (6) were held in the hand for dressing down granite . The axe was at the close of the prehistoric age a square slab of copper (7) with one sharpedge; small projecting tails then appeared at each end of the back (8), and increased until the long tail for lashing on to the handle is more than half the length of the axe in an iron one of Roman (?) age (13) . Flint axes were made in imitation of metal in the XIIth Dynasty (9) .

Battle-axes with rounded outline started as merely a sharp edge of metal (ro) inserted along a stick (ro, II); they become semicircular (12) by the Vlth Dynasty, lengthen to double their width in the XIIth, and then thin out to a waist in the middle by the XVIIIth Dynasty . Flint hoes (14) are common down to the XIIth Dynasty . Small copper hoes (15) with a hollow socket are probably of about the XXIInd Dynasty . Long iron picks (16), like those of modertr navvies, were made by Greeks in the XXVIth Dynasty . Slicing Tools.—The knife was originally a flint saw (17), having, minute teeth; it must have been used for cutting up animals, fresh or dried, as the teeth break away on soft wood . The double-edged straight flint knife dates from S.D . 32-45 . The single-edged knife (18) is from 33-65 . The flint knives of the time of Menes are finely curved (19), with a handle-notch; by the end of the IInd Dynasty they were much coarser (2o) and almost straight in the back . In the Xlth-XIIth Dynasty they were quite straight in the back (21), and without any handle-notch . The copper knives are all one-edged with straight back (22) down to the XVIIIth Dynasty, when two-edged symmetrical knives (23) become usual . Long thin one-edged knives of iron begin about Soo B.c .

Various forms of one-edged iron knives, straight (24) and curved (25), belong to Roman times . A cutting-out knife, for slicing through textiles, began double-edged (26) in the Ist Dynasty, and went through many single-edged forms (27-29) until it died out in the XXth Dynasty (Man, 1901, 123) . A small knife hinged on a pointed backing of copper (31) seems to have been made for hair

curling and toilet purposes . Razors (30) are known of the XIIth Dynasty, and became common in the XVIIIth . A curious blade of copper (32), straight sided, and sharpened at both ends, belongs to the close of the prehistoric age . Shears are only known of Roman age and appear to have been an Italian invention: there is a type in Egypt with one blade detachable, so that each can be sharpened apart . Chisels of bronze began of very small size (33) at S.D . 38, and reached a full size at the close of the prehistoric age . In historic times the chisels are about r X z, X6 to 8 in, long (34) . Small chisels set in wooden handles are found (35) of the XIIth and XVIIIth Dynasties . Ferrules first appear in the Assyrian iron of the 7th century B.C . The rise of stone work led to great importance of heavy chisels (36) for trimming limestone and Nubian sandstone; such chisels are usually round rods about 1 in. thick and 6 in. long .

The cutting edge was about z in. wide for flaking tools (36), which were not kept sharp, and r in. wide for facing tools (37) which had a good edge . In Greek times the iron chisels are shorter and

merge into wedges (39) . The socketed or mortising chisel (38) is unknown till the Italian bronze of the 8th century B.C., and the Naucratis iron of the 6th century . Adzes begin in S.D . 56, as plain slips of copper (40) 4 to 6 in. long, about x wide ands th thick . The square end was rounded in the early dynastic times, and went through a series of changes down to the XIXth Dynasty . Adzes of iron are probably of Greek times . A fine instance of a handle about 4 ft. long is represented in the IIIrd Dynasty (P.M . XI.) . The adze (41) was used not only for wood-work but also for dressing limestone . Scraping Tools.—Flint scrapers are found from S.D . 40 and onward .

The rectangular scraper (42) began in S.D . 63, and continued into the IInd Dynasty: the flake with rounded ends (43) was used from the Ist to the IVth Dynasty (P . Ab. i. xiv., xv.) . Round scrapers were also made (44) . Flint scrapers were used in dressing down limestone sculpture in the IIIrd Dynasty . Rasps of conical form (45), made of a

sheet of bronze punched and coiled round, were common in the XVIIIth Dynasty, apparently as personal objects, possibly used for rasping dried bread . In the Assyrian iron tools of the 7th century B.C. the long straight rasp (46) is exactly of the modern type . The saw is first found as a notched bronze knife of the Illyd Dynasty . Larger toothed saws (47) are often represented in theIVth-VlthDynasty, as used by carpenters . There are no dated specimens till the Assyrian iron saws (48) of the 7th century B.C . Drills were of flint (49) for hard material and bead-making, of bronze for wood-work . In the Assyrian tools iron drills are of slightly twisted scoop form (50), and of centre-bit type with two scraping edges (51) .

In Roman times the modern V drill (52) is usual . The drill was worked by a stock with a loose cap (53), rotated by a drill

bow, in the XIIth to Roman dynasties . The pump drill with cords twisted round it was in Roman use . The bow drill (56) was used as a fire drill to rotate wood (55) on wood (57); and the cap (54) for such use was of hard stone with a highly polished hollow . The drill brace appears to have been used by Assyrians in the 7th century B.C . Piercers of bronze tapering (58), to enlarge holes in leather, &c., were common in all ages . Fighting Weapons.—The battle-axe has been described above with axes . The flintdagger (59) is found from S.D . 40-56 . A very finely made copper dagger (6o) with deep midrib is dated to between 55 and 6o S.D . Copper daggers with parallel ribbing (61) down the middle are common in the Xlth-XIVth Dynasties; and in the XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties they are often shown in scenes and on figures . The falchion with a curved blade (62) belongs to the XVIIIth-XXth Dynasty .

The

rapier (63) or lengthened dagger is rarely found, and is probably of prehistoric Greek origin . The sword is of Greek and Roman age, always double-edged and of iron . The spear is not commonly found in Egypt, until the Greek age, but it is represented from the Xlth Dynasty onward; it belonged to the Semitic people (L.D. ii . 133) The bow was always of wood, in one piece in the prehistoric and early times, also of two horns in the Ist Dynasty; but the compound bow of horn is rarely found, only as an importation, in the XVIIIth Dynasty . The arrow-heads of flint (64-66) and of bone (68–69) were pointed, and also square-ended (67) far hunting (P.R.T. ii. vi.; vii . A., 7 ; xx)dv.) . The copper arrow-heads appear in the XIXth Dynasty, of blade form with tang (70); the triangular form (72), and leaf form with socket (71), are of the XXVIth Dynasty . Triangular iron arrows with tang are of the same age . Tangs show that the shaft was a reed, sockets show that it was of wood . Many early arrows (XIIth) have only hard wood points of conical form . The sling is rarely shown in the XIXth-XXth Dynasties; and the only known example is probably of the XXVIth . Hunting Weapons.—The forked lance of flint was at first wide with slight hollow (73) from S.D .

32-43; then the hollow became a V notch (74) in 38 S.D. and onward . The lance was fixed in a wooden shaft for throwing, and held in by a check-cord from flying too far if it missed the animal (P.N . LXXIII.) . The

harpoon for fishing was at first of bone;(75), and was imitated in copper (76, 77) from S.D . 36 onwards . The boomerang or throw-stick (78) was used from the Ist to the XXIInd Dynasty, and probably later . Fish-hooks of copper (79-82) are found from the Ist Dynasty to Roman times . A trap for animals' legs, formed by splints of palm stick radiating round a central hole, is figured in S.D . 6o, and one was found of probably the XXth Dynasty . Fishing nets were common in all historic times, and the lead sinkers (83) and stone sinkers (84) are often found under the XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties . Agricultural Tools.—The hoe of wood (85) is the main tool from the late prehistoric time, and many have been found of the XVIIIth Dynasty . With the handle lengthened (86) and turned forward, this became the plough (87 is the hieroglyph, 88 the drawing, of a plough) ; this was always sloping, and never the upright post of the Italic type .

The

rake of wood (89) is usual in the XIIth and XVIIIth Dynasties . The fork (90), used for tossing straw, was common in the Old Kingdom, but none has been found . The sickle was of wood (92), with flints (91) inserted, apparently a copy of the ox-jaw and teeth . The notched flints for it are common from the Ist to the XVIIIth Dynasty . In Roman times the same principle was followed, by making an iron sickle with a deep groove, in which was inserted the cutting blade of steel (P.E . XXIX.) . Shovel-boards, to hold in right (93) or left hand for scraping up the grain in winnowing, are usual in the XVIIIth Dynasty, and are figured in use in the Old Kingdom Pruning knives with curved blades (94) are Italic, and were made of iron by the Romans . Corn grinders were flat oval stones, with a smaller one lying cross-ways (g5), and slid from end to end . Such were used from the Old Kingdom down to late times . In the Roman period a larger stone was used, with a rectangular slab (96) sliding on it, in which a long trough held the grain and let it slip out below for grinding . The quern with rotary motion is late Roman, and still used by Arabs . The large circular mill-stones of Roman age worked by horse-power are usually made from slices of granite columns .

Building Tools.—The adze described above was used for dressing blocks of limestone . The

brick-mould was an open frame, with one side prolonged into a handle (97), exactly as the modern mould . The plasterers' floats (98) were entirely cut out of wood . The mud rake for mixing mortar is rather narrower than the modern form . The square (99) and plummet (1oo,lof) have remained unchanged since the XIXth Dynasty . For dressing flat surfaces three wooden pegs (102) of equal length were used; a string was stretched between the tops of two, and the third peg was set on the point to be tested and tried against the string . Thread-Work.—Stone spindle whorls (103) are common in the prehistoric age; wooden ones were usual, of a cylindrical form (104) in the XIIth, and conical (105) in the XVIIIth Dynasty . The thread was secured by a spiral notch in the stick . In Roman times an iron hook on the top held the thread (Io6) as in modern spindles . Needles of copper were made in the prehistoric, as early as S.D . 48, and very delicate ones by S.D . 71 .

Gold needles are found of the Ist Dynasty . Fine ones of bronze are common in the XVIIIth Dynasty, and some with two eyes at right angles, one above the other, to carry two different threads . The copper bodkin is found in S.D . 70 . Netters are common, of rib bones, pointed (107); the thread was wound round them . Long netting needles were probably brought in by the dynastic people as they figure in the hieroglyphs . Finely-made ones are found in the XVIIIth Dynasty and later . Reels were also commonly used for net making, of pottery (rob) or even pebbles (1o9) with a groove chipped around . The flint vase-grinders were used in the early dynasties (Iro), and also sandstone grinders for hollowing larger vases (III) . Stone-Work.—In the prehistoric ages stone building was unknown, but many varieties of stones were used for carving into vases, amulets and ornaments . The stone vases were at first of cylindrical forms, with a foot, and ears for hanging . These are worked in brown basalt, syenite, porphyry, alabaster and limestone .

In the second prehistoric civilization

barrel-shaped vases became usual; and to the former materials were added slate, grey limestone and breccia . Serpentine appears later, and diorite towards the close of the prehistoric ages . Flat dishes were used in earlier times; gradually deeper forms appear, and lastly the deep bowl with turned-in edge belongs to the close of the prehistoric time and continued common in the earlier dynasties (P.D.P . 19) . This stone-work was usually formed on the outside with rotary motion, but sometimes the vase was rotated upon the grinder (Q . H . 17) . The interior was ground out by cutters (figs . 110,111) fixed in the end of a stick and revolved with a weight on the top, as shown in scenes on the tombs of the Vth Dynasty . The cutters were sometimes flints of a crescent shape (P . Ab. ii. liii . 24), but more usually grinders blocks of quartzite sandstone (26-34), and occasionally of diorite (Q .

H. xxxii. lxii.) . These blocks were fed with

sand and water to give the bite on the stone (P . Ab. i . 26) . The outsides of the vases were entirely wrought by handwork, with the polishing lines crossing diagonally . Probably the first forming was done by chipping and hammer-dressing, as in later times; the final facing of the hard stones was doubtless by means of emery in block or powder, as emery grinding blocks are found . In the early dynasties the hard stones were still worked, and the Ist dynasty was the most splendid age for vases, bowls, and dishes of the finest stones . The royal tombs have preserved an enormous quantity of fragments, from which five hundred varied forms have been drawn (P.R.T . 6) . The materials are quartz crystal, basalt, porphyry, syenite, granite, volcanic ash, various metamorphics, serpentine, slate, dolomite marble, alabaster, many coloured marbles, saccharine marble, grey and white limestones . The most splendid vase is one from Nekhen (Hieraconpolis), of syenite, 2 ft. across and 16 in. high, hollowed so as to be marvellously light and highly polished (Q . H. xxxvii) .

Another branch of stone-work, surface carving, was early developed by the artistic dynastic race . The great palettes of slate covered with elaborate reliefs are probably all of the pre-Menite kings; the most advanced of them having the figure of Narmer, who preceded Menes . Other carving full of detail is on the great mace-heads of Narmer and the Scorpion king, where scenes of ceremonials are minutely engraved in relief . In the Ist Dynasty the large tombstones of the kings are of bold work, but the smaller stones of private graves vary much in the style, many being very coarse . All of this work was by hammer-dressing and scraping . The scrapers seem to have always been of copper . The earliest use of stone in buildings is in the tomb of King Den (Ist Dynasty), where some large flat blocks of red granite seem to have been part of the construction . The

oldest stone chamber known is that of Khasekhemui (end of the IInd Dynasty) . This is of blocks of limestone whose faces follow the natural cleavages, and only dressed where needful; part is hammer-dressed, but most of the surfaces are adze-dressed . The adze was of stone, probably flint, and had a short handle (P.R.T. ii . 13) . The same king also wrought granite with inscriptions in relief .

In the close of the IIIrd Dynasty a great impetus was given to stone-work, and the grandest period of refined

masonry is at the beginning of the IVth Dynasty under Cheops . The tombs of Medum under Snefru are built with immense blocks of limestone of 20 and 33 tons weight . The dressing of the face between the hieroglyphs was done partly with copper and partly with flint scrapers (P.M . 27) . The most splendid masonry is that of the Great Pyramid of Cheops . The blocks of granite for the roofing are 56 in number, of an average weight of 54 tons each . These were cut from the water-worn rocks at the Cataract—the soundest source for large masses, as any incipient flaws are well exposed by wear . The blocks were quarried by cleavage; a groove was run along the line intended, and about 2 ft. apart holes about 4 in. wide were jumped downward from it in the intended plane; this prevented a skew fracture (P.T . 93) . In shallower masses a groove was run, and then holes, apparently for wedges, were sunk deeper in the course of it; whether wetted wood was used for the expansive force is not known, but it is probable, as no signs are visible of crushing the granite by hard wedges . The facing of the cloven surfaces was done by hammer-dressing, using rounded masses of quartzose hornstone, held in the hand without any handle . In order to get a hold for moving the blocks without bruising the edges, projecting lumps or bosses were left on the faces, about 6 or 8 in. across and 1 or 2 in. thick .

After the block was in place the

boss was struck off and the surface dressed and polished (P.T . 78, 82) . In the pyramid of Cheops the blocks were all faced before building; but the later granite temple of Chephren and the pyramid of Mycerinus (Menkaura, Menkeure) show a system of building with an excess of a few inches left rough on the outer surface, which was dressed away when in position (P.T . Iro, 132) . The flatness of faces of stone or rock (both granite and lime-stone) was tested by placing a true-plane trial plate, smeared with red ochre, against the dressed surface, as in modern engineering . The contact being thus reddened showed where the face had to be further dressed away; and this process was continued until the ochre touched points not more than an inch apart all over the joint faces, many square feet in area . On stones too large for facing -plates a diagonal draft was run, so as to avoid any wind in the plane (P.T . 83) . The cutting of granite was not only by cleavage and hammer dressing, but also by cutting with harder materials than quartz such as emery . Long saws of copper were fed with emery powder,and used to saw out blocks as much as 71 ft. long (P.T . Plate XIV.) . In other cases the very deep scores in the sides of the saw-cut suggest that fixed cutting points were inserted in the copper saws; and this would be parallel to the saw-cuts in the very hard limestone of the Palace of Tiryns, in which a piece of a copper saw has been broken, and where may be yet found large chips of emery, too long and coarse to serve as a powder, but suited for fixed teeth .

A similar method was common for circular holes, which were cut by a

tube, either with powder or fixed teeth . These tubular drills were used from the IVth Dynasty down to late times, in all materials from alabaster up to carnelian . The resulting cores are more regular than those of modern rock-drilling . Limestone in the Great Pyramid, as elsewhere, was dressed by chopping it with an adze, a tool used from prehistoric to Roman times for all soft stones and wood . This method was carried on up to the point of getting contact with the facing-plate at every inch of the surface; the cuts cross in various directions . For removing rock in reducing a surface to a level, or in quarrying, cuts were made with a pick, forming straight trenches, and the blocks were then broken out between these . In quarrying the cuts are generally 4 or 5 in. wide, just enough for the workman's arm to reach in; for cutting away rock the grooves are 20 in. wide, enough to stand in, and the squares of rock about 9 ft. wide between the grooves (P.T. roo) . The accuracy of the workmanship in the IVth Dynasty is astonishing . The base of the pyramid of Snefru had an average variation of 6 in. on 5765 and ro' of squareness . But, immediately after, Cheops improved on this with a variation of less than 6 in. on 9069 in. and 12" of direction . Chephren fell off, having 1.5 error on 8475, and 33" of variation; and Mycerinus (Menkeure) had 3 in. error on 4154 and 1' 50" variation of direction (P.M . 6; P.T .

39, 97, III) . Of perhaps later date the two south pyramids of Dahshur show errors of 3.7 on 7459 and 1.1 on 2065 in., and variation of direction of 4' and ro' (P.S . 28, 30) . The above smallest error of only i in 16,000 in lineal measure, and r in 17,000 of angular measure, is that of the rock-cutting for the

foundation of Khufu, and the masonry itself (now destroyed) was doubtless more accurate . The error of flatness of the joints from a straight line and a true square is buts nth in. on 75 in. length; and the error of level is onlyb-th in. along a course, or about rb" on a long length (P.T . 44) . We have entered thus fully on the details of this period, as it is the finest age fl'r workmanship in every respect . But in the Xllth Dynasty the granite sarcophagus of Senwosri II. is perhaps the finest single piece of cutting yet known; the surfaces of the granite are all dull-ground, the errors from straight lines and parallelism are only about 2*nth inch (P . 1, 3) . In later work we may note that copper scrapers were used for facing the limestone work in the Vlth, the XIIth and the XVIIlth Dynasties . In the latter age granite surfaces were ground, hieroglyphs were chipped out and polished by copper tools fed with emery; outlines were graved by a thick sheet of copper held in the hand, and sawed to and fro with emery . Corners of signs and intersections of lines were first fixed by minute tube-drill holes, into which the hand tool butted, so that it should not slip over the outer surface .

The marking out of work was done by fine black lines; and supplemental lines at a fixed distance from the true one were put in to guard against obliteration in course of working (P.T . 92); similarly in building a brick pyramid the

axis was marked, and there were supplemental marks two cubits to one side (P.K . 14) . When cutting a passage in the rock a rough drift-way was first made, the roof was smoothed, a red axis line was drawn along it, and then the sides were cut parallel to the axis .