WEAK VERBS  . II. geminatae reigned in different countries forming a compact and not very large See also:

• AREA

area—perhaps from See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• ARABIA

Arabia to See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor, and from See also:

• PERSIA

Persia to See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete and See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt . Whether they all sprang from one See also:

• COMMON

common stock of picture-See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing we shall perhaps never know, nor can we as yet trace the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence which one See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• SYSTEM

system may have had on another, owing to the poverty of documents from most of the countries concerned . It is certain that in Egypt from the IVth See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

Dynasty onwards the mode of writing was essentially the same as that which was extinguished by the fall of paganism in the 4th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century A.D . Its elements in the hieroglyphic See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form are pictorial, but each hieroglyph had one or more well-defined functions, fixed by See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

convention in such a manner that the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language was expressed in writing word by word . Although a picture sign may at times have embarrassed the skilled native reader by offering a choice of fixed values or functions, it was never intended to convey merely an See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea, so as to leave to him the task of putting the idea into his own words . How far this holds See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good for the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period before the IVth Dynasty it is difficult to say . The known See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions of the earlier times are so brief and so limited in range that the system on which they were written cannot yet be fully investigated . As far back as the Ist Dynasty, phonograms (see below) were in full use . But the spelling then was very concise: it is possible that some of the slighter words, such as prepositions, were omitted in the writing, and were intended to be supplied from the context . As a whole, we gain the impression that a really distinct and more See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of hieroglyphic writing by a substantially vaguer notation of words See also:

• LAY

lay not far behind the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of the Ist Dynasty . The employment of the signs are of three kinds: any given sign represents either (I) a whole word or See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root or (2) a See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound as See also:

• PART

part of a word; or (3) pictorially defines the meaning of a word the sound of which has already been given by a sign or See also:

• GROUP

group of signs preceding .

The number of phonograms is very restricted, but some signs have all these See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers . For instance, is the conventional picture of a draughtboard (shown in See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan) with the draughtsmen (shown in See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation) on its edge:—this sign (I) signifies the root mn, " set," "See also:

• FIRM

firm"; or (2) in the group , represents the same sound as part of the root mnj{, " good "; or (3) added to the group .snt (thus : shows that the meaning intended is " See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught- See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board," or " See also:

• DRAUGHTS (from AS. dragan, to draw)

draughts," and not any of the other meanings of snt . Thus signs, according to their employment, are said to be (x) " word-signs," (2) " phonograms," or (3) " determinatives." Word-signs.—The word-sign value of a sign is, in the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, the name of the See also:

• OBJECT

object it represents, or of some material, or quality, or See also:

• ACTION

action, or idea suggested by it . Thus' is hr, "See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face"; II , a See also:

• VASE
• VASE (through Fr. from Lat. vas, a vessel, pl. vasa, of which the singular vasum is rarely found; the ultimate root is probably was-, to cover, seen in Lat: vestis, clothing, Eng. " vest," Gr. to-th c, and also in " wear," of garments)

vase of ointment, is mrh.t, " ointment "; is wdb, " turn," Much investigation is still required to establish the origins of the values of the signs; in some cases the connexion between the pictures and the See also:

• PRIMARY

primary values seems to be curiously remote . Probably all the signs in the hieroglyphic signary can be employed in their primary sense . The secondary value expresses the consonantal root of the name or other primary value, and any, or almost any, derivative from that root: as when ,==3, a See also:

• MAT (O. Eng. meatt, from late Lat. mattes, whence Ital. mallet, Ger. and Dan. matte, Du. mat, &c.)

mat with a cake upon it, is not only htp, an " offering-mat," but also htp in the sense of " conciliation,' " See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace," " See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest," " setting " (of the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun), with many derivatives . In the third place, some signs may be transferred to See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express another root having the same consonants as the first: thus , the See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear, by a See also:

• PLAY

play upon words can express not only sdm, " hear," but also sdm, " paint the eyes." Phonograms.—Only a limited number of signs are found with this use, but they are of the greatest importance . By searching through-out the whole See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of normal inscriptions, earlier than the periods of See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• RULE

rule when great liberties were taken with the writing, probably no more than one See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred different phonograms can be found . The number of those commonly employed in good writing is between seventy and eighty . The most important phonograms are the uniliteral or alphabetic signs, twenty-four in number in the Old See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom and without any homophones: later these were increased by homophones to See also:

• THIRTY

thirty . Of biliteral phonograms—each expressing a See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of two consonants—there were about fifty commonly used: some fifteen or twenty were rarely used . As Egyptian roots seldom exceeded three letters, there was no need for triliteral phonograms to spell them .

There is, however, one triliteral phonogram, the See also:

• EAGLE (Fr. aigle, from the Lat. aquila)

eagle,, tyw, or tiu (?), used for the plural ending of adjectives in y formed from words ending in t (whether See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical or the feminine ending) . The phonetic values of the signs are derived from their word-sign values and consist usually of the See also:

• BARE

bare root, though there are rare examples of the retention of a flexional ending; they often ignore also the weaker consonants of the root, and on the same principle reduce a repeated consonant to a single one, as when the See also:

• HOE (through Fr. houe from O.H.G. houwd, mod. Ger. Haue; the root is seen in " hew," to cut, cleave; the word must be distinguished from " hoe," promontory, tongue of land, seen in place names, e.g. Morthoe, Luton Hoo, the Hoe at Plymouth, &c. ; this is t
• HOE, RICHARD MARCH (1812-1886)

hoe N , See also:

• BUN

bun, has the phonetic value bn . The See also:

• HISTORY

history of some of the alphabetic signs is still very obscure, but a sufficient number of them have been explainedto make it nearly certain that the values of all were obtained on the same principles.' Some of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient words from which the phonetic values were derived probably See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early into disuse, and may, never be discoverable in the texts that have come down to us . The following are among those most easily explained: qreed See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

flower, value y and H; from 3 1,, " See also:

• REED
• REED, ANDREW (1787-1862)
• REED, ISAAC (1742—1807)
• REED, JOSEPH (1741—1785)
• REED, THOMAS BRACKETT (1839—1902)

reed." (It seems as if the two values y and ti were obtained by choosing first one and then the other of the two semi-consonants composing the name . They are much confused, and a conventional See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol 1 has to be adopted for rendering q.) forearm, value '(v); from D'(9), " See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand." mouth, value r; from r, " mouth." belly and teats, value b; from 107, b.t, " belly." (The feminine ending is here, as usual, neglected.) tank, values; from 0, " tank." slope of See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth value q; „ q",” slope," or See also:

• BRICKWORK

brickwork, d d, " height." (The doubled weak consonant is here neglected.) See also:

• CAM (CAO), DIOGO (fl. 1480-1486)

cam, '1, See also:

• COBRA (Naja tripudians)

cobra, value z; from , z.t, " cobra." of For some, alphabetic signs more than one likely origin might be found, while for others, again, no clear See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of origin is yet forthcoming . It has already been explained that the writing expresses only consonants . In the Graeco-Roman period various imperfect attempts were made to render the vowels in See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign names and words by the semi - vowels as also by the consonant Y which „._ originally represented having been reduced in speech by that time to the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of K, only . Thus, HroXeµauos is spelt Ptwrmys, See also:

• ANTONINUS, SAINT ANTONIO PIEROZZI

Antoninus, 'Nt'nynws or Intnyns, &c . &c . Much earlier, throughout the New Kingdom, a See also:

• SPECIAL

special " syllabic " See also:

• ORTHOGRAPHY (from Gr. Opeoc, correct, right or straight, and yp&cbecv, to write)

orthography, in which the alphabetic signs for the consonants are generally replaced by See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups or single signs having the value of a consonant followed by a semi-vowel, was used for foreign names and words, e.g . nano, "See also:

• CHARIOT (derived from an O. Fr. word, formed from char, a car)

chariot," was written e in n Coptic I pe6WO'Y'T• '711o, - ~1n, " See also:

• TOWER (Lat. turris; Fr. tour, clocker; Ital. torre; Ger. Thurm)

tower,” was written e O I Coptic !l.tE6TOW \ NW/VS 11 1 1 n», " See also:

• HARP (Fr. harpe; Ger. Harfe; Ital. arpa)

harp," was written nrwv., I I I non, " Hamath," was written )84 . According to W .

Max See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller (Asien and See also:

• EUROPA (or rather, EUROPE)

Europa, 1893, See also:

• CHAP

chap. v.), this represents an endeavour to express the vocalization; but, if so, it was carried out with very little system . In practice, the semi-vowels are generally negligible . This method of writing can be traced back into the See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle Kingdom, if not beyond, and it greatly affected the spelling of native words in New Egyptian and See also:

• DEMOTIC (Gr. Srlµorucos, of or belonging to the people)

demotic . Determinatives.—Most signs can on occasion be used as determinatives, but those that are very commonly employed as phonograms or as secondary word-signs are seldom employed as determinatives; and when they are so used they are often somewhat differentiated . Certain generic determinatives are very common, e.g.: of See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion . 5---° of acts involving force . of divinity . It seems that " acrophony " (giving to a sign the value of the first See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter of its name) was indulged in only by priests of the latest See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, inventing fantastic modes of writing their " vain repetitions" on the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple walls . , hand, value d; from r, d.t, " hand." of a See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person or a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man's name . =; of buildings . of inhabited places . Mil; of foreign countries .

See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

club; of foreigners . of all actions of the mouth—eating and speaking, likewise jj silence and See also:

• HUNGER

hunger. vvww wvwe ; ripple-lines; of liquid. vvvvw hide; of animals, also See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather, &c . of See also:

• PLANTS

plants and See also:

• FIBRES
• FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra, apparently connected either with filum, thread, or findere, to split)

fibres . Q ; of flesh . a sealed See also:

• PAPYRUS

papyrus-See also:

• ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. role, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota, wheel)
• ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846– )

roll; of books, teaching, See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, and of abstract ideas generally . In the earliest inscriptions the use of determinatives is restricted to the , jl, &c., after proper names, but it See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed immensely later, so that few words beyond the particles were written without them in the normal See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style after the Old Kingdom . Some few signs ideographic of a group of ideas are made to express particular words belonging to that group by the aid of phonograms which point out the special meaning . In such cases the ideogram is not merely a determinative nor yet quite a word - sign . Thus 1 __ n ," Semite," 1 0 ' 1 1 I I "Libyan," &c., but 1 cannot stand by itself for the name of any particular foreign See also:

• PEOPLE

people . So also in See also:

• MONOGRAM (from Late Lat. monogramma, in Late Gr. µovoypaµµov, from µovos, single, ypaµµa, letter)

monogram 1p is sm " go," -- is " conduct." Orthography.—The most primitive form of spelling in the hieroglyphic system would be by one sign for each word, and the monuments of the Ist Dynasty show a decided tendency to this mode . Examples of it in later times are preserved in the royal cartouches, for here the monumental style demanded special consciseness . Thus, for instance, the name of Tethmosis III.—MN-FJPR-R'—is spelled Cp g) (as R' is the name of the sun-See also:

• GOD

god, with customary deference to the deity it is written first though pronounced last) .

A number of common words—prepositions, &c.—with only one consonant are spelled by single alphabetic signs in See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary writing . Word-signs used singly for the names of See also:

• OBJECTS

objects are hr, " face," &c . But the use of bare word-signs is not ,common . Flexional consonants are almost always marked by phonograms, except in very early times; as when the feminine word'' =z.t, "cobra," is spelled Also, if a sign had more than one value, a phono- c See also:

• GRAM

gram would be added to indicate which of its values was intended: thus ; in 1 is iw, " he," but in 1 it is stn, " See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king." Further, ~~1111.. o owing to the vast number of signs employed, to prevent confusion of one with another in rapid writing they were generally provided with " phonetic complements," a group being less easily misread than a single letter . E.g . 1, wz, " command," is regularly written wz (w) ;but 1, hz, " See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white," is written I hz(z) . This practice had the See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage also of distinguishing determinatives From phonograms . Thus the root or syllable Izn is regularly written 1 vt to avoid confusion with the determinative . Redundance (b)b'(0) . Biliteral phonograms are very rare as phonetic complements, nor are two biliteral phonograms employed together in writing the radicals of a word . Spelling of words purely in phonetic or even alphabetic characters is not uncommon, the determinative being generally added . Thus in the pyramidal texts we find hpr, " become," written in one copy of a See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text, in another ~~ .

Such variant spellings are very important for fixing the readings of word-signs . It is noteworthy that though words were so freely spelled in alphabetic characters, especially in the time of the Old Kingdom, no advance was ever made towards excluding the cumbersome word-signs and biliteral phonograms, which, by a judicious use of determinatives, might well have been rendered quite superfluous . Abbreviations.—We find -Ye [1, strictly 'nh z> .t See also:

• STANDING

standing for the monogram is , i.e. and for H•t-Hrw " See also:

• HATHOR

Hathor." A word-sign may be compounded with its phonetic See also:

• COMPLEMENT (Lat. complementum, from complere, to fill up)

complement, as hz " white," or with its determinative, as hz "See also:

• SILVER

silver." The table on the opposite See also:

• PAGE
• PAGE, THOMAS NELSON (1853- )
• PAGE, WILLIAM (1811-1885)

page shows the uses of a few of the commoner signs . The decorative value of hieroglyphic was fully appreciated in Egypt . The aim of the artist-See also:

• SCRIBE, AUGUSTIN EUGENE (1791-1860, French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 24th of December 1791. His father was a silk merchant, and he was well educated, being destined for the bar. But, having a real gift for the theatre, a gift which unfortunately

scribe was to arrange his variously shaped characters into square groups, and this could be done in great measure by taking advantage of the different ways in which many words could be spelt . Thus its could be written 1 , hsy q q, . hs f - hs-n f NVWSA But some words in the lassical writing zi.., were intractable from this point of view . It is obvious that the alphabetic signs played a very important part in the formation of the groups, and many words could only be written in alphabetic signs . A great advance was therefore made when several homophones were introduced into the See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet in the Middle and New Kingdoms, partly as the result of the wearing away of old phonetic distinctions, giving the choice between ~— and p, e and and navw^ and , and Q . In later times the number of homophones in use increased greatly throughout the different classes, the tendency being much helped by the See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of fanciful writing; but few of these homophones found their way into the cursive script . Occasionally a scribe of the old times indulged his See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy in •"' sportive " or " mysterious " writing, either inventing new signs or employing old ones in unusual meanings . See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

Short sportive inscriptions are found in tombs of the XIIth Dynasty; some groups are so written cursively in early medical papyri, and certain' religious inscriptions in the royal tombs of the XIXth and XXth Dynasties are in See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret writing .

Fanciful writing abounds on the temples of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods . , See also:

• PALAEOGRAPHY (Gr. aaXalbs, ancient, and ypal6ew, to write)

PALAEOGRAPHY Hieroglyphic.—The See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division is into monumental or epigraphic hieroglyphs and written hieroglyphs . The former may be rendered by the sculptor or the painter in See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone, on See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, &c., with great delicacy of detail, or may be simply sunk or painted in outline . When finely rendered they are of great value to the student investigating the origins of their values . No other system of writing bears upon its face so clearly the history of its development as the Egyptian; yet even in this a vast amount of See also:

• WORK

work is still required to detect, and disentangle the details . Monumental hieroglyphic did not cease till the 3rd century A.D . (Temple of See also:

• ESNA, or ESNEH

Esna) . The written hieroglyphs, formed by the scribe with the reed See also:

• PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen)

pen on papyrus, leather, wooden tablets, &c., have their outlines more or less abbrevi ated, producing eventually the cursive scripts See also:

• HIERATIC

hieratic and demotic . The written hieroglyphs were employed at all periods, especially for religious texts . Hieratic.-A See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of cursive hieroglyphic or hieratic writing is found even in the Ist Dynasty . In the Middle Kingdom it is well generally marked with I in classical writing, as -0, lb, " See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart," in writing is the rule; for instance, b is often spelled j ceremonial viva ! >nli wz, snb .

" See also:

• LIFE

Life, Prosperity and See also:

• HEALTH

Health," and in course of time '' was used in accounts instead of PA dmz, " See also:

• TOTAL

total." Monograms are frequent and are found from the earliest times . Thus JJ , -f- mentioned above are monograms, the association of CI= and .1.\ having no pictorial meaning . Another common Sign . I Description . Name . Word-sign Phonetic Determinative Value . Value . Value . ~J) See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child hrd (khrod) youth ' face br (bor) br [br] .47>" See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye ir.t (yori.t) lr it see, &c . mouth r (ro) r r forearm .('ei) [action of hand or See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm] L=o arm with nbt " be strong " nbt violent action stick man with nbt " be strong " nbt violent action stick sm; sm; lungs and See also:

• WINDPIPE

windpipe heart Lb heart heart and ? nfr windpipe See also:

• SPARROW (0. Eng. spearwa; Icel. sporr; O.H.G. Sparo)

sparrow ? sr in evil, worthless- widgeon s;.t s; bb ness, smallness bolti-See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish In.t in bite, &c . tusk (I) Lbb " tooth " bb p cut See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch (2) bw " See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste " bw [bt] wood, See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree threshing- bt bt See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor sp.t sp 0 sun (I) r'"sun" (I) sun chamber, (2) hrw " See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day " (2) division of time J See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house pr pr ' See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat See also:

• LAND

land t' t' t' (boundless hori- I) See also:

• LIBATION (Lat. libatio, from libare, to take a portion of something, to taste, hence to pour out as an offering to a deity, &c.; cf. Gr. Aeid3ew)

libation bs.t bs bs zon, eternity vase wz wz wz See also:

• CORD (derived through the Fr. corde, from the Lat. chorda, Gr. xop(5rt, the string of a musical instrument)

cord on stick \~ See also:

• BASKET

basket nb.t nb C25 looped ? k k basket sickle ? m' m, tillage composite [mr ?] mr mr See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire-See also:

• DRILL

drill z•.t(?) z' z' attendant's sms "follow " sms equipment 'O.-- See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

knife ds dg cut, prick, cut- ting See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument characterized, and in its most cursive form seems hardly to retain any definable trace of the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original hieroglyphic pictures . The style varies much at different periods .

Demotic.—Widely varying degrees of cursiveness are at all periods observable in hieratic; but, about the XXVIth Dynasty, which inaugurated a great commercial era, there was something like a definite parting between the uncial hieratic and the most cursive form afterwards known as demotic . The employment of hieratic was thenceforth almost confined to the copying of religious and other traditional texts on papyrus, while demotic was used not only for all business but also for writing See also:

• LITERARY

literary and even religious texts in the popular language . By the time of the XXVth Dynasty the cursive of the conservative Thebais had become very obscure . A better form from See also:

• LOWER

Lower Egypt drove this out completely in the time of See also:

• AMASIS

Amasis II. and is the true demotic . Before the Macedonian See also:

• CON

con-quest the cursive ligatures of the old demotic gave See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth to new symbols which were carefully and distinctly formed, and a little later an epigraphic variety was engraved on stone, as in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of the [See also:

• HIEROGLYPHICS (Gr. iepos, sacred, and'yXv ni, carving)

HIEROGLYPHICS ; ' ETC . See also:

• ROSETTA (Coptic Rashit, Arabic Rashid)

Rosetta stone itself . One of the most See also:

• CHAR (Salvelinus)

char acteristic distinctions of later demotic is the minuteness of the writing . Hieroglyphic is normally written from right to See also:

• LEFT

left, the signs facing to the commencement of the See also:

• LINE

line; hieratic and demotic follow the same direction . But monumental hieroglyphic may also be written from left to right, and is constantly so arranged for purposes of symmetry, e.g. the inscriptions on the two jambs of a See also:

• DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Bbpa,. Lat. fores or valvae; the English word, with other forms common in allied languages, comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. Obpa and Lat. fares)

door are frequently turned in opposite directions; the same is frequently done with the short inscriptions scattered over a See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene amongst the figures, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to distinguish one See also:

• LABEL (a French word, now represented by lambeau, possibly a variant; it is of obscure origin and may be connected with a Teutonic word appearing in the English " lap," a flap or fold)

label from another . In See also:

• MODERN

modern founts of type, the hieroglyphic signs are made to run from left to right, in order to facilitate the setting where See also:

• EUROPEAN

European text is mixed with the Egyptian . The table on next page shows them in their more correct position, in order to display more clearly their relation to the hieratic and demotic equivalents . See also:

• CLEMENT (Lat. Clemens, i.e. merciful; Gr. K)4gs)
• CLEMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793)
• CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589)

Clement of See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria states that in the Egyptian See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools the pupils were first taught the " epistolographic " style of writing (i.e. demotic), secondly the " hieratic " employed by the sacred See also:

• SCRIBES

scribes, and finally the " hieroglyphic " (Strom. v .

657) . It is doubtful whether they classified the signs of the huge hieroglyphic syllabary with any strictness . The only native work on the writing that has come to See also:

• LIGHT

light as yet is a fragmentary papyrus of Roman date which has a table in parallel columns of hieroglyphic signs, with their hieratic equivalents and words written in hieratic de-scribing them or giving their values or meanings . The See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list appears to have comprised about 46o signs, including most of those that occur commonly in hieratic . They are to some extent classified . The See also:

• BEE (Sanskrit blza, AS. ben, Lat. apis)

bee heads the list LL&I as a royal sign, and is followed by figures of nobles and other human figures in various attitudes, more or less grouped among themselves, animals, See also:

• REPTILES (Lat. Reptilia, creeping things, from reptilis; ref ere, to creep; Gr. Ep7rety, whence the term " herpetology," for the science dealing with them)

reptiles and fishes, See also:

• SCORPION (Lat. Scorpio)

scorpion, animhls again, twenty-four alphabetic characters, parts of the human See also:

• BODY

body carefully arranged from to J, thirty-two in number, parts of animals, See also:

• CELESTIAL, OR STELLAR

celestial signs, terrestrial signs, vases . The arrangement down to this point is far from strict, and beyond it is almost impossible to describe concisely, though there is still a rough grouping of characters according to resemblance of form, nature or meaning . It is a curious fact that not a single See also:

• BIRD

bird is visible on the fragments, and the trees and plants, which might easily have been collected in a compact and well-defined See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section, are widely scattered . Why the alphabetic characters are introduced where they are is a See also:

• PUZZLE

puzzle; the order of these is:— es U (?) t (?) P (?) —"— (?) — — TIToT (?) • Z 6 (?) o _ aII® '(?)q Three others, 4at~ and &co.., had already occurred amongst the fish and reptiles . There seems to be no logical aim in this arrangement of the alphabetic characters and the See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series is incomplete . Very probably the Egyptians never constructed a really systematic list of hieroglyphs . In modern lists the signs are classified according to the nature of the objects they depict, as human figures, plants, vessels, See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments, &c .

Horapollon's Hieroglyphica may be cited as a native work, but its author, if really an Egyptian, had no knowledge of good writing . His See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production consists of two elaborate complementary lists: the one describing sign-pictures and giving their meanings, the other cataloguing ideas in order to show how they could be expressed in hieroglyphic . Each seems to us to be made up of curious but perverted reminiscences eked out by invention ; but they might some day prove to represent more truly the usages of mystics and magicians In designing amulets, &c., at a time approaching the middle ages . Demotic . Hieratic . Hieroglyphic . See also:

• ART

art, " who " . . . .) 7 4 q i+ new% my Perso ("See also:

• PHARAOH (Par'oh)

Pharaoh ") . 4014) )j t I v^•_) // Pero <nly wa, bib yot, "See also:

• FATHER

father " raI - J . ~j„ ttf 'onkh, " live" 6I * <n~f j G 4 ekh, " know " . . ahe, " stand " .

. c 4. t7 See also:

• ATE

ate, <b< a° g eine, " carry " . . 2r– ft to ms (phon.) . . . '{4~ 111 ms s (alph.) . . . . ...I n .. s s (alph.) . . . . !~ q m (alph.) . . , ) m n (alph.) . . . • ~- nnn % n See also:

• MASTABA (Arab. for " bench ")

Mastaba of Ptahhete and Akhethetep, pt. i .

(1900); M . A . See also:

• MURRAY
• MURRAY (or MORAY), EARLS OF
• MURRAY (or MORAY), JAMES STUART, EARL OF (c. 1531-1570)
• MURRAY (or MORAY), SIR ROBERT (c. 1600-1673)
• MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART (1841-1904)
• MURRAY, DAVID (1849– )
• MURRAY, EUSTACE CLARE GRENVILLE (1824–1881)
• MURRAY, JAMES (c. 1719-1794)
• MURRAY, JOHN
• MURRAY, JOHN (1778–1820)
• MURRAY, LINDLEY (1745–1826)
• MURRAY, LORD GEORGE (1694–1760)
• MURRAY, SIR JAMES AUGUSTUS HENRY (1837– )
• MURRAY, SIR JOHN (1841– )

Murray, Saqqara Mastabas (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1905) ; also .See also:

• PETRIE, GEORGE (179o-1866)
• PETRIE, WILLIAM MATTHEW FLINDERS (1853– )

Petrie and See also:

• GRIFFITH, SIR RICHARD JOHN (1784-1878)

Griffith, Two Hieroglyphic Papyri from Tanis (London, 1889) (native sign-list) ; G . Moller, Hieratische Paloographie (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1909) ; Griffith, See also:

• CATALOGUE (a Fr. adaptation of the Gr. KaraXoyos, a register, from Karalyety, to enrol or pick out)

Catalogue of Demotic Papyri in the J . See also:

• RYLANDS, JOHN (18o1-1888)

Rylands Collection (See also:

• MANCHESTER
• MANCHESTER (popularly Manchester-by-the-Sea)
• MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Manchester, 1909) . (F . L1 .. G.) E . Art and See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

Archaeology . —In the following sections a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general history of the characteristics of Ancient Egyptian art is first given, showing the variation of periods and essentials of style; and this is followed by an See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the use made of material products, of the tools and instruments employed, and of the monuments . For further details see also the See also:

• SEPARATE

separate topographical headings (for excavations, &c.), and the general articles on the various arts and art-materials (for references to Egypt); also PYRAMIDS; See also:

• MUMMY (from the Persian mumiai, pitch or asphalt)

MUMMY, &c . The early scribe's outfit, often carried slung over his See also:

• SHOULDER (in O.E. sculder, cognate with Ger. Schulter, Dutch schouder, Swed. skuldra, &c; the root is unknown)

shoulder, is seen in the hieroglyph .

It consisted of frayed reed pens or brushes, a small pot of See also:

• WATER

water, and a See also:

• PALETTE (the Fr. diminutive of pale, spade, blade of an oar, from Lat. Pala, spade, baker's shovel or peel; cf. pandere, to spread)

palette with two circular cavities in which See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black and red See also:

• INK (from Late Lat. encaustum, Gr. gysavorov, the purple ink used by Greek and Roman emperors, from iyKaiew, to burn in)

ink were placed, made of finely powdered See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour solidified with See also:

• GUM (Fr. gomme, Lat. gommi, Gr. Kµµ1, possibly a Coptic word; distinguish " gum," the fleshy covering of the base of a tooth, in O. Eng. gbma, palate, cf. Ger. Gaumen, roof of the mouth; the ultimate origin is probably the root gha, to open wide, seen in

gum . In business and literary documents red ink was used for contrast, especially in headings; in demotic, however, it is very rarely seen . The pen became finer in course of time, enabling the scribe to write very small . The split reed of the Greek penman was occasionally adopted by the See also:

• LATE

late demotic scribes . Egypt had See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long been bilingual when, in papyri of the 2nd century A.D., we begin to find transcripts of the Egyptian language into Greek letters, the latter reinforced by a few signs borrowed from the demotic alphabet : so written we have a magical text and a horoscope, probably made by foreigners or for their use . The See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

infinite superiority of the Greek alphabet with its full notation of vowels was readily seen, but piety and See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom as yet barred the way to its full See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption . The See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph of See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity banished the old system once and for all; even at the beginning of the 4th century the native Egyptian script scarcely survived See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of the Nubian frontier at See also:

• PHILAE

Philae; a little later it finally expired . The following eight signs, however, had been taken over from demotic by the See also:

• COPTS

Copts: from 1'#Tl s;, dem . 2 =h, probably from hw (ory h;), dem . Ib (Boh.) = 4, from 1 ll;, dem . (Akhm.) ={y, from " o 4yy, {lt, dem . 3 .

C =f, from 2cd f, dem . 6 = c, from k (oor_®~ ll), dem. cm- , =g, from ^ d; (or t;),dem . 1 J.~ . nYa—~ =ti, from Aa dy•t, dem . ~' . For origins of hieroglyphs, see Petrie's Medum (1892); F . LI . Griffith, A Collection of Hieroglyphs (1898); N. de G . See also:

• DAVIES (DAvIslus), JOHN (1679-1732)
• DAVIES, DAVID CHARLES (1826-1891)
• DAVIES, RICHARD (c. 1505—1581)
• DAVIES, SIR JOHN (1569-1626)
• DAVIES, SIR LOUIS HENRY (1845— )

Davies, The IX . 3General Characteristics . The wide and complex subject of Egyptian art will be treated here in six periods: Prehistoric, Early See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

Kings, See also:

• PYRAMID

Pyramid Kings, XIIth Dynasty, XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties, XXVIth Dynasty and later . In each age will be considered the (A) statuary, (B) reliefs, (C) See also:

• PAINTING

painting .

Prehistoric.—The earliest civilized See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of Egypt was highly skilled in See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical accuracy and regularity, but had little sense of organic forms . They kept the unfinished treatment of the limbs and extremities which is so characteristic of most barbaric art; and the action was more considered than the form . (A) In the See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round there are in the earlier See also:

• GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL (1846— )

graves See also:

• FEMALE

female figures of two races, the Bushman type and European, both probably representing servants or slaves . These have the legs always See also:

• UNITED

united, sloping to a point without feet (See also:

• PLATE

Plate I. fig . 1); the arms are only stumps . The face has a beaky See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose and some indication of eyes . Upon the See also:

• SURFACE

surface is colouring; red for the Bushman, with black See also:

• WHISKER

whisker though female; white for the European type, with black See also:

• TATTOO

tattoo patterns . Other female figures are modelled in a See also:

• PASTE (O. Fr. paste, modern pate, Late Lat. pasta, whence also in Span., Port. and Ital., from Gr. 1r&vrrl or 1raara, barley porridge, or salted pottage, ir&ao'ety, to sprinkle with salt)

paste, upon a stick, and the black See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair is sometimes made separately to See also:

• FIT

fit on as a See also:

• WIG (short for " periwig," an alternative form of " peruke," Fr. perruque; cf. Span. peluca; conjecturally derived from Lat. pilus)

wig over the red See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head, showing that wigs were then used . Male figures are generally only heads in the earlier times . Tusks with carved heads (Plate I. See also:

• FIGS

figs . 2, 3) are the earliest, beginning at S.D . (sequence date) 33; heads on the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of combs are found, from S.D .

42 to the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of such combs in the fifties . All of these heads show a high forehead and a pointed See also:

• BEARD (A.S. beard, O. H. and Mod. Ger. Bart, Dan. beard, Icel. bar, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slay. barda, Russ. barodd. Cf. Welsh barf, Lat.. barba, though, according to the New English Dictionary, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful)
• BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900)

beard; and such expression as may be discovered is See also:

• GRAVE

grave but not See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage . In later times whole figures of See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory, stone and See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay are found, with the legs united, and the arms usually joined to the body . A favourite way of indicating the eyes was by drilling two holes and inserting a white See also:

• SHELL
• SHELL (O. Eng. scell, scyll, cf. Du. sceel, shell, Goth. skalja, tile; the word means originally a thin flake,. cf. Swed. skalja, to peel off; it is allied to " scale " and " skill," from a root meaning to cleave, divide, separate)

shell See also:

• BEAD

bead in each . The figures of animals (Plate I. figs . 4, 5) are quite as See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude as the human figures: they only summarily indicate the 1 In the prehistoric age when See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute dating is out of reach a " sequence dating " by means of the sequence of types in pottery, , tools, &c., has been proposed in Petrie's Diospolis Parva, pp . 4 et sqq . The earliest prehistoric graves yet known are placed at S.D . 30, and shortly before S.D . 8o the period of the first historic dynasty is entered . II mature, and often hardly express the genus . They are most usual on combs and pins; but sacred animals are also found .

The See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

lion is the most usual (Plate I. fig . 7), but the legs are roughly marked, if at all: the leonine See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air is given, but the attitude is, more distinct than the form . The See also:

• HAWK (O. Eng. hafoc or heafoc, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch havik, Ger. Habicht; the root is hab-, haf-, to hold, cf. Lat. accipiter, from capere)

hawk (Plate I. fig . 6) is modelled in See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block without any legs . The See also:

• SLATE (properly CLAY SLATE; in M. Eng. slat or sclat, from O. Fr. esclat, a small piece of wood used as a tile; esclater, to break into pieces, whence modern Fr. eclat, the root being seen also in Ger. schleissen, to split)

slate palettes in the form of animals are even more See also:

• SUMMARY

summary, and continually degraded until they lost all trace of their origin . There are also curious figures of animals chipped in See also:

• FLINT
• FLINT, AUSTIN (1812-1886)
• FLINT, or FLTNTSHTRE (sir Gallestr)
• FLINT, ROBERT (1838- )
• FLINT, TIMOTHY (1780-1840)

flint, which show some, See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, but no detail . (B) Reliefs with See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal figures belong to the Iater part of the prehistoric age . The See also:

• RELIEF

relief is See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low, and the form hatched across with lines (Plate I. fig . 8), a style copied from See also:

• DRAWING

drawing . Thette is more animation than in the round figures . At the close of this age the See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion of long processions of animals appears (Plate I. fig . 9); some character is shown in these, but no sense of action .

(C) Drawing is found from the earliest See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization, donee in white slip on red vases . Figures of men are very rare (Plate I. fig. ro); they have the body triangular, the See also:

• WAIST

waist being very narrow; the legs are two lines linked by a zigzag, as if to express that they move to and fro . The usual figures are goats and hippopotami; always having the body covered with See also:

• CROSS

cross lines to express the connexion of the outlines (Plate I. fig. ri) . This technique is in every way closely akin to that of the modern Kabyle . An entirely different mode is common at a later time when designs were painted in thin red colour on a light See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown See also:

• WARE

ware . The subjects of the earlier of these examples are imitations of cordage, of marbling, and of basket-work; later there are rows of men and animals, and See also:

• SHIPS

ships (Plate I. figs . 12, 13), with various minor signs . The figures are never cross-hatched as in earlier drawing, but always filled in altogether . The fact that the ships have oars and not sails makes it probable that they were rather for the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea than for See also:

• NILE
• NILE, BATTLE OF THE
• NILE, SOBAT

Nile See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic, and a See also:

• STARFIS