See also:

• WOLFF (less correctly WOLF), CHRISTIAN (1679-1754)
• WOLFF, CASPAR FRIEDRICH (1733-1794)
• WOLFF, JOSEPH (1795–1862)

WOLFF (less correctly See also:

• WOLF
• WOLF (Canis lupus)
• WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1759-1824)
• WOLF, HUGO (1860-1903)
• WOLF, JOSEPH (1820-1899)

WOLF), See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

CHRISTIAN (1679-1754)  , See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German philosopher and mathematician, the son of a See also:

• TANNER, HENRY OSSAWA (1859- )
• TANNER, THOMAS (1674-1735)

tanner, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born at See also:

• BRESLAU (Polish Wraclaw)

Breslau on the 24th of See also:

• JANUARY

January 1679 . At the university of See also:

• JENA

Jena he studied first See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics and physics, to which he soon added See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy . In 1703 he qualified as Privatdozent in the university of See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, where he lectured till 1706, when he was called as See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor of mathematics and natural philosophy to See also:

• HALLE (known as HALLE-AN-DER-SAALE, t0 distinguish it from the small town of Halle in Westphalia)
• HALLE, SIR CHARLES (originally KARL HALLE) (1819-1895)

Halle . Before this See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time he had made the acquaintance of See also:

• LEIBNITZ (LEIBNIZ), GOTTFRIED WILHELM

Leibnitz, of whose philosophy his own See also:

• SYSTEM

system is a modification . In Halle See also:

• WOLFF (less correctly WOLF), CHRISTIAN (1679-1754)
• WOLFF, CASPAR FRIEDRICH (1733-1794)
• WOLFF, JOSEPH (1795–1862)

Wolff limited himself at first to mathematics, but on the departure of a colleague he added physics, and presently included all the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main philosophical disciplines . But the claims which Wolff advanced on behalf of the philosophic See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason (see See also:

• RATIONALISM (from Lat. rationalis, pertaining to reason, ratio)

RATIONALISM) appeared impious to his theological colleagues . Halle was the headquarters of See also:

• PIETISM

Pietism, which, after a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long struggle against Lutheran dogmatism, had itself assumed the characteristics of a new orthodoxy . Wolff's professed ideal was to See also:

• BASE

base theological truths on See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of mathematical certitude, and strife with the Pietists See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out openly in 1721, when Wolff, on the occasion of laying down the See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office of See also:

• PRO

pro-See also:

• RECTOR (Lat. for " ruler," " guide," &c., from regere, " rule ")

rector, delivered an oration " On the See also:

• PRACTICAL

Practical Philosophy of the See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese " (Eng. tr . 1750), in which he praised the purity of the moral precepts of See also:

• CONFUCIUS [K'ung tsze] (550 or 551-478 B.C.)

Confucius, pointing to them as an evidence of the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of human reason to attain by its own efforts to moral truth . For ten years Wolff was subjected to attack, until in a See also:

• FIT

fit of exasperation he appealed to the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court for See also:

• PROTECTION

protection . His enemies, however, gained the See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear of the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William I. and represented to him that, if Wolff's See also:

• DETERMINISM (Lat. determinare, to prescribe or limit)

determinism were recognized, no soldier who deserted could be punished, since he would only have acted as it was necessarily predetermined that he should . This so enraged the king that he at once deprived Wolff of his office, and commanded him to leave Prussian territory within See also:

• FORTY

forty-eight See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours on See also:

• PAIN (from Lat. poena, Gr. robin, penalty, that which must be paid: O. Fr. peine)
• PAIN, BARRY (1867– )

pain of a halter .

The same See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day Wolff passed into See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony, and presently proceeded to See also:

• MARBURG
• MARBURG, COLLOQUY OF (Marburger Religionsgesprach)

Marburg, to which university he had received a See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call before this crisis . The See also:

• LANDGRAVE (Ger. Landgraf, from Land, " a country" and Graf, "count" )

landgrave of See also:

• HESSE
• HESSE (Lat. Hessia, Ger. Hessen)

Hesse received him with every See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark of distinction, and the circumstances of his See also:

• EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere)

expulsion See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew universal See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to his philosophy . It was everywhere discussed, and over two See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred books and See also:

• PAMPHLETS

pamphlets appeared for or against it before 1737, not reckoning the systematic See also:

• TREATISES

treatises of Wolff and his followers . In 1740 Frederick William, who had already made overtures to Wolff to return, died suddenly, and one of the first acts of his successor, Frederick the See also:

• GREAT

Great, was to recall him to Halle . His entry into the See also:

• TOWN

town on the 6th of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1740 partook of the nature of a triumphal procession . In 1743 he became See also:

• CHANCELLOR (M. Eng. and Anglo-Fr. canceler, chanceler, Fr. chancelier, Lat. cancellarius)

chancellor of the university, and in 1745 he received the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of Freiherr from the elector of See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria . But his See also:

• MATTER

matter was no longer fresh, he had outlived his power of attracting students, and his class-rooms remained empty . He died on the gth of See also:

• APRIL

April 1754 . The \Volffian philosophy held almost undisputed sway in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany till it was displaced by the Kantian revolution . It is essentially a See also:

• COMMON

common-sense See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation or watering-down of the Leibnitzian system; or, as we can hardly speak of a system in connexion with Leibnitz, Wolff may be said to have methodized and reduced to dogmatic See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the thoughts of his great predecessor, which often, however, lose the greater See also:

• PART

part of their suggestiveness in the See also:

• PROCESS

process . Since his philosophy disappeared before the influx of new ideas and the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of more speculative minds, it has been customary to dwell almost exclusively on its defects—the want of See also:

• DEPTH

depth or fresh-ness of insight, and the aridity of its neo-scholastic formalism, which tends to relapse into verbose platitudes . But this is to do injustice to Wolff's real merits .

These are mainly his comprehensive view of philosophy, as embracing in its survey the whole See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of human knowledge, his insistence everywhere on clear and methodic ex-position, and his confidence in the power of reason to reduce all subjects to this form . To these must be added that he was practically the first to "See also:

• TEACH [THATCH OR THACH], EDWARD (d. 1718)

teach philosophy to speak German." The Wolffian system retains the determinism and optimism of Leibnitz, but the monadology recedes into the background, the monads falling asunder into souls or conscious beings on the one See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand and See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere atoms on the other . The See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of the pre-established See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony also loses its metaphysical significance, and the principle of sufficient reason introduced by Leibnitz is once more discarded in favour of the principle of See also:

• CONTRADICTION, PRINCIPLE OF (principium contradictionis)

contradiction which Wolff seeks to make the fundamental principle of philosophy . Philosophy is defined by him as the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science of the possible, and divided, according to the two faculties of the human individual, into a theoretical and a practical part . See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

Logic, sometimes called philosophia rationalis, forms the introduction or propaedeutic to both . Theoretical philosophy has for its parts See also:

• ONTOLOGY (adapted from a modern Latin form ontologia used by Jean le Clerc 1692; Gr. 6v, Evros, pres. part. of dam, to be, and klryos, science)

ontology or philosophia prima, cosmology, rational psycho-logy and natural See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology; ontology treats of the existent in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general, See also:

• PSYCHOLOGY
• PSYCHOLOGY (>Guxrl, the mind or soul, and X yos, theory)

psychology of the soul as a See also:

• SIMPLE

simple non-extended substance, cosmology of the See also:

• WORLD

world as a whole, and rational theology of the existence and attributes of See also:

• GOD

God . These are best known to philosophical students by .See also:

• KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804)

Kant's treatment of them in the Critique of Pure Reason . Practical philosophy is subdivided into See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

ethics, See also:

• ECONOMICS

economics and politics . Wolff's moral principle is the realization of human perfection . Wolff's most important See also:

• WORKS

works are as follows: Anfangsgrunde aller mathematischen Wissenschaften (1710; in Latin, Elementa matheseos universae, 1713–1715) ; Verniinftige Gedanken von den Kraften See also:

• DES

des menschlichen Verstandes (1712; Eng. trans . 1770) ; Vern . See also:

• GED, WILLIAM (1690-1749)

Ged. von Gott, der Welt and der Seele des Menschen (1719) ; Vern .

Ged. See also:

• VAN

van der Menschen See also:

• THUN (Fr. Thoune)
• THUN, LAKE OF

Thun and See also:

• LASSEN, CHRISTIAN (1800-1876)
• LASSEN, EDUARD (1830-19o4)

Lassen (1720) ; Vern . Ged. von dem gesellschaftlichen Leben der Menschen (1721); Vern . Ged. von den Wirkungen der Natter (1723); Vern . Ged. von den Absichten der naturlichen Dinge (1724) ; Vern . Ged. von dem Gebrauche der Theile in Menschen, Thieren and Pflanzen (1725) ; the last seven may briefly be described as treatises on logic, See also:

• METAPHYSICS
• METAPHYSICS, or METAPHYSIC (from Gr. /sera, after, d v med, things of nature, lots, i.e. the natural universe)

metaphysics, moral philosophy, See also:

• POLITICAL

political philosophy, theoretical physics, See also:

• TELEOLOGY (Gr. Taos, end)

teleology, See also:

• PHYSIOLOGY (from Gr. 4 i s, nature, and koyos, discourse)

physiology : Philosophia rationalis, sive logica (1728); Philosophia prima, sive Ontologia (1729); Cosmologia generalis (1731) ; Psychologia empirica (1732) ; Psychologia rationalis (1734); Theologia naturalis (1736–1737); Philosophic practices universalis (1738–1739) ; See also:

• JUS

Jus naturae and Jus Gentium (1740–1749) ; Philosophia moralis (1750-1753) . His Kleine philosophische Schriften have been collected and edited by G . F . See also:

• HAGEN
• HAGEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH VON DER (178o-1856)

Hagen (1736–1740) . In addition to Wolff's autobiography (Eigene Lebensbeschreibung, ed . H . See also:

• WUTTKE, KARL FRIEDRICH ADOLF (1819—1870)

Wuttke, 1841) and the usual histories of philosophy, see W . See also:

• SCHRADER, EBERHARD (1836-1908)

Schrader in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, xliv .

; C . G . Ludovici, Ausfiihrlicher Entwurf einer vollstandigen Historic der Wolff'schen Philosophic (1736–1738) ; J . See also:

• DESCHAMPS, EUSTACHE
• DESCHAMPS, SMILE (1791-1871)

Deschamps, Cours abrege de la philosophia wolffienne (1743) ; F . W . Kluge, See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian von Wolff der Philosoph (1831); W . Arnsperger, Christian Wolffs Verhaltnis zu Leibniz (1897) . (A . S .