WOODBURY  , a See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city and the See also:

• COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

county-seat of See also:

• GLOUCESTER
• GLOUCESTER (abbreviated as pronounced Glo'ster)
• GLOUCESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• GLOUCESTER, GILBERT DE CLARE, EARL OF (1243-1295)
• GLOUCESTER, RICHARD DE CLARE, EARL OF (1222-1262)
• GLOUCESTER, ROBERT, EARL OF (d. 1147)
• GLOUCESTER, THOMAS OF WOODSTOCK, DUKE

Gloucester county, New See also:

• JERSEY
• JERSEY, EARLS OF

Jersey, U.S.A., in the western See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, 9 M . S. of See also:

• PHILADELPHIA

Philadelphia . Pop . (1900) 4087, including 246 See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign-See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born and 517 negroes; (1910) 4642 . It is served by the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West Jersey & Seashore Railroad . Among its public institutions is the Dept-See also:

• FORD, EDWARD ONSLOW
• FORD, JOHN (r586–c.1640)
• FORD, RICHARD (1796-1858)
• FORD, THOMAS (b. c. 158o)

ford See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

Institute See also:

• FREE

Free Library . There are various manufactures . Woodbury is said to have been settled about 1684; it became the county-seat in 1787 . It was chartered as a See also:

• BOROUGH (A.S. nominative burh, dative byrig, which produces some of the place-names ending in bury, a sheltered or fortified place, the camp of refuge of a tribe, the stronghold of a chieftain; cf. Ger. Burg, Fr. bor, bore, bourg)
• BOROUGH [BURROUGH, BURROWE, BORROWS], STEVEN (1525–1584)

borough in 1854 and as a city in 187o . See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

WOOD-See also:

• CARVING

CARVING, the See also:

• PROCESS

process whereby wood is ornamented with See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design by means of See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp cutting tools held in the See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand . The See also:

• TERM

term includes anything within the limit of See also:

• SCULPTURE
• SCULPTURE (Lat. sculptura, from sculpere, to carve, cognate with Gr. yXb4ew)

sculpture in the See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round up to hand-worked See also:

• MOULDINGS

mouldings such as help to compose the See also:

• TRACERY

tracery of screens, &c . Material.—The texture of wood limits the See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope of the See also:

• CARVER, JOHN (x575?-1621)
• CARVER, JONATHAN (c. 1725-1780)

carver in that the substance consists of bundles of See also:

• FIBRES
• FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra, apparently connected either with filum, thread, or findere, to split)

fibres (called See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain) growing in a See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical direction without much lateral cohesive strength .

It is therefore essential to arrange the more delicate parts of a design " with the grain" instead of across it, and the more slender stalks or See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf-points should not be too much separated from their adjacent surroundings . The failure to appreciate these See also:

• PRIMARY

primary rules may constantly be seen in damaged See also:

• WORK

work, when it will be noticed that, whereas tendrils, tips of birds' beaks, &c., arranged across the grain have been broken away, similar details designed more in See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony with the growth of the wood and not too deeply undercut remain intact . See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

Oak is the most suitable wood for carving, on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of its durability and toughness without being too hard . See also:

• CHESTNUT (nux Castanea)

Chestnut (very like oak), See also:

• AMERICAN

American See also:

• WALNUT (Juglans)

walnut, See also:

• MAHOGANY

mahogany and See also:

• TEAK

teak are also very See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods; while for See also:

• FINE

fine work See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian walnut, See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime, sycamore, See also:

• APPLE (a common Teut. word, A.S. aepl, aeppel, O.H.G. aphul, aphal, apfal, mod. Ger. Apfel)

apple, See also:

• PEAR (Pyrus communis)

pear or See also:

• PLUM

plum, are generally chosen . Decoration that is to be painted and of not too delicate a nature is as a See also:

• RULE

rule carved in See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine . Tools.—The carver requires but few kinds of tools: (r) the See also:

• GOUGE (adopted from the Fr. gouge, derived from the Late Lat. gubia or gulbia, in Ducange gulbium, an implement ad hortum excolendum; and also instrumentum ferreum in usu fabrorum; according to the New English Dictionary the word is probably of Celtic ori
• GOUGE, MARTIN (c. 1360–1444)

gouge—a See also:

• TOOL (0. Eng. tdl, generally referred to a root seen in the Goth. taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or dress leather)

tool with a curved cutting edge—used in a variety of forms and sizes for carving hollows, rounds and sweeping curves; (2) the See also:

• CHISEL (from the O. Fr. cisel, modern ciseau, Late Lat. cisellum, a cutting tool, from caedere, to cut)

chisel, large and small, whose straight cutting edge is used for lines and cleaning up See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat surfaces; (3) the " V" tool used for veining, and in certain classes of flat work for emphasizing lines . A See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• SCREW (O.E. scrue, from O. Fr. escroue, mod. ecrou; ultimate origin uncertain; the word, or a similar one, appears in Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Schraube, Dan. skrue, but Skeat, following Diaz, finds the origin in Lat. scrobs, a ditch, hole, particularl

screw for fixing work to the See also:

• BENCH (an O.E. and Eng. form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Bank, Dan. baenk and the Eng. doublet " bank ")

bench, and a See also:

• MALLET (or MALLOCH), DAVID (?17o5–1765)
• MALLET, PAUL HENRI (173o–18o7)

mallet, See also:

• COMPLETE

complete the carver's See also:

• KIT (1) (probably an adaptation of the Middle Dutch kitie, a wooden tub, usually with a lid and handles; in modern Dutch kit means a tankard)

kit, though other tools, more or less legitimate, are often used, such as a router for bringing grounds to a See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform level, See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent gouges and bent See also:

• CHISELS

chisels for cutting hollows too deep for the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary tool . Method.—The process for See also:

• RELIEF

relief carving is usually as follows . The carver first fixes the wood to his bench by means of the screw already referred to . He then (a) sketches on the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main lines of his See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea, indicating the See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers, foliage, &c.; or (b) should the design be very intricate or of a geometrical See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, he traces the whole design from a See also:

• PATTERN

pattern first prepared on See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper; or (c) he may combine the first two methods . Next he grounds out the spaces between the lines with a gouge to a more or less uniform See also:

• DEPTH

depth . Then he " bosts " the upstanding pattern that remains, i.e. he See also:

• MODELS

models and shapes the details of his design, carefully balancing the See also:

• LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF

lights and shadows; and finally, after having obtained the result he desires, he cleans up the whole .

The quicker he See also:

• WORKS

works, the fewer times he goes over the same part, the more sketchy the""subsidiary portions, the less high finish he puts into the detail, the better the result . Incised work, chip-carving, &c., are generally finished at once and not in stages . Much carved work, that of See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage nations for instance, is of course carved without the assistance of a bench . Many small articles, too, are carved in the hand . Little models of antelopes or bears, so See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar in See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland, are carved in this way with a tool somewhat like a See also:

• HALF

half-open See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

knife but with the blade fixed . See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

Style.—From the remotest ages the decoration of wood has been a foremost See also:

• ART

art . The tendency of human nature has always been to See also:

• ORNAMENT (Lat. ornare, to adorn)

ornament every See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article in use . Just as a See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child of to-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day instinctively cuts patterns on the bark of his switch freshly taken from the hedgerow, so the See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, to say nothing of his more civilized successor, has from the earliest times cut designs on every wooden article he is accustomed to handle . The See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North American See also:

• INDIAN

Indian carves his wooden See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish-See also:

• HOOK, JAMES CLARKE (1819-1907)
• HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD (1788-1841)
• HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR (1798-1875)

hook or his See also:

• PIPE

pipe See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem just as the Polynesian works patterns on his See also:

• PADDLE

paddle . The native of See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• GUIANA (Guyana, Guayana')

Guiana decorates his cavassa grater with a well-conceived See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme of incised scrolls, while the savage of See also:

• LOANGO

Loango See also:

• BAY

Bay distorts his See also:

• SPOON (O. Eng. span, a chip or splinter of wood, cf. Du. spoon, Ger. Spahn, in same sense, probably related to Gr. r4 v, wedge)

spoon with a hopelessly unsuitable design of perhaps figures See also:

• STANDING

standing up in full relief carrying a See also:

• HAMMOCK

hammock . Figure-work seems to have been universal . The craving torepresent one's See also:

• GOD

god in a tangible See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form finds expression in number-less ways .

The See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early carver, and, for that See also:

• MATTER

matter, the native of the See also:

• PRESENT

present day, has always found a difficulty in Figure giving expression to the See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye, and at all times has evaded work . it by See also:

• INLAYING

inlaying this feature with coloured material . See also:

• OBSIDIAN

Obsidian, for example, is used by the See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• EASTER

Easter Islander in See also:

• COMMON

common with the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian craftsman of the earlier dynasties . To carve a figure in wood is not only more difficult but is less satisfactory than See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble (for which see SCULPTURE), owing to the tendency of wood to crack, to be injured by See also:

• INSECTS

insects, or to suffer from changes in the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere . The texture of the material, too, often proves fatal to the expression of the features, especially in the classic type of youthful See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face . On the other hand, magnificent examples exist of the more rugged features of See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age: the beetling brows, the furrows and lines neutralizing the defects of the grain of the wood . However, in See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient work the See also:

• SURFACE

surface was not of such consequence, for figures as a rule were painted . It is not always realized at the present day to what extent See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour has even from the most ancient times been used to enhance the effect of wood-carving and sculpture . The modern colour. See also:

• PREJUDICE (Lat. praejudicium)

prejudice against See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold and other tints is perhaps due to the fact that painted work has been vulgarized . One associates coloured carvings too readily with See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

theatre galleries and the triumphal See also:

• CAR (Late Lat. carra)

car of the See also:

• CIRCUS (Lat. circus, Gr. Kipeos or Kptxot, a ring or' circle; probably " circus " and " ring " are of the same origin)

circus procession . The " restored" work too of some See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church screens does anything but encourage the revival of this See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time-honoured See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom . The arrangement of a proper and harmonious scheme of colour is not the work of the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house-painter, but of the specially trained artist .

See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

Witness the old coloured screens of See also:

• NORFOLK
• NORFOLK, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Norfolk, the harmonious greens and reds, the proper proportion of gold, the panels adorned with See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

saints on backgrounds of delicate See also:

• DIAPER (derived through the Fr. from the Gr. &&, through, and a rirpos, white; the derivation from the town of Ypres, " d'Ypres," in Belgium is unhistorical, as diapers were known for centuries before its existence)

diaper work, and compare these triumphs of decoration with the rougher blues and reds of the See also:

• AVERAGE

average restored See also:

• SCREEN (usually, but very doubtfully, connected with Lat. scrinium, a box for holding books, from scribere, to write; a connexion with Ger. Schranke, barrier, has been suggested)

screen, and one ceases to wonder why we now prefer the wood See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain . Of See also:

• LATE

late years carving has gone out of See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion; a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change has come about . The work is necessarily slow, thus causing charges to appear high . Other and cheaper methods of decoration have driven carving from its former See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place . See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

Machine work has much to See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer for, and the endeavour to popularize the See also:

• CRAFT (a word common to Teutonic languages for strength, or power; cf. Ger. Kraft)

craft by means of the See also:

• VILLAGE

village class has not always achieved its own end . The See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual disappearance of the individual artist, elbowed out as he has been by the contractor, is fatal to the continuance of an art which can never flourish when done at so much a yard . So See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long as the carver is expected to work to some one else's pattern—so long as he is, in detail at least, not his own designer—this art, which attained its See also:

• ZENITH (from the Arabic)

zenith in the glories of the 15th-See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral and in the See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental domestic work of the See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred years to follow, can never See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope to live again . Ancient Work before the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian Era.—The extreme dryness of the See also:

• CLIMATE

climate of See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt accounts for the existence of a number of wood-carvings from this remote See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period (see EGYPT: Art and p~ See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

Archaeology) . Some wood panels from the See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb of Hosui at Sakkarah are of the III. See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty (over 4000 B.C.) . The carving consists of hieroglyphs and figures in See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low relief, and the style is extremely delicate and fine . A See also:

• STOOL

stool shown on one of the panels has the legs shaped like the fore and See also:

• HIND

hind limbs of an See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal, a form common in Egypt for thousands of years . In the See also:

• CAIRO
• CAIRO (Arabic Misr-al-Kahira, or simply Misr)

Cairo museum may be seen the statue of a man of 5o years of age, of the period of the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• PYRAMID

pyramid, possibly 4000 B.C .

The expression of the face and the See also:

• REALISM (from Low Lat. realis, appertaining to res, things, as opposed to ideas and imaginations)

realism of the See also:

• CARRIAGE

carriage Figure have never been surpassed by any Egyptian sculptor of work . this or any other period . The figure is carved out of a solid See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block of sycamore, and in accordance with the Egyptian custom the arms are joined on . The eyes are inlaid with pieces of opaque See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• QUARTZ

quartz, with a See also:

• LINE

line of See also:

• BRONZE

bronze surrounding to imitate the lid; a small disk of transparent See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock crystal forms the See also:

• IRIS

iris, while a tiny See also:

• BIT (from the verb " to bite," either in the sense of a piece bitten off, or an act of biting, or a thing that bites or is bitten)

bit of polished See also:

• EBONY (Gr. E(3evos)

ebony fixed behind the crystal imparts to,it a lifelike sparkle . " The IV., V. and VI. dynasties See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover the finest period of Egyptian sculpture . The statues found in the tombs show a freedom of treatment which was never reached in later times . They are all portraits, which the artist strove his utmost to render exactly like his See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model . For these are not, like more modern statues, simply works of art, but had primarily a religious signification " (See also:

• MASPERO, GASTON CAMILLE CHARLES (1846– )

Maspero) . As the See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits of the deceased might inhabit these " Ka " statues, the features and proportions were closely copied . There are to be found in the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal museums of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe many Egyptian examples of the utmost See also:

• INTEREST

interest—See also:

• MUMMY (from the Persian mumiai, pitch or asphalt)

mummy cases of human beings with the face alone carved, animal mummy cases, some-times boxes, with the figure of a See also:

• LIZARD (Lat. lacertal)

lizard, perhaps, carved in full Mummy relief standing on the lid . Sometimes the animal, a cases. See also:

• CAT
• CAT, CIVET
• CAT, HOUSE

cat, sitting on its haunches, for example, or a See also:

• JACKAL
• JACKAL (Turk. chakal)

jackal, crouching on all fours, would be carved in the round and its hollowed See also:

• BODY

body used as the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case itself . Of See also:

• FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir)

furniture, folding seats like the modern campstool, and chairs with legs terminating in the heads of beasts or the feet of animals, Furniture. still exist .

Beds supported by lions' paws (XI. and XII . dynasties, from Gebelein, now in the Cairo Museum), See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head-rests, 6 or 8 in. high, shaped like a crutch on a See also:

• FOOT

foot, very like those used by the native of New See also:

• GUINEA

Guinea to-day, are carved with scenes, &c., in outline . In the British Museum may be seen a tiny little See also:

• COFFER (Fr. coffee, O. Fr. cofre or cofne, Lat. cophinus, cf. " coffin ")

coffer, 4 in. by 22 in., with very delicate figures carved in low relief . This little See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box stands on cabriole legs of an See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch long with claw feet, quite See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis Quinze in character . There are See also:

• INCENSE

incense ladles, the handle representing a bouquet of See also:

• LOTUS

lotus flowers, the bowl formed like the leaf of an aquatic plant with serrated edges (from Gurnah, XVIII. dynasty); See also:

• MIRROR (through O. Fr. mirour, mod. miroir, from a sup-posed Late Lat. miratorium, from mirari, to admire)

mirror handles, representing a little See also:

• PILLAR (0. Fr. piler, Mod. pilier, Late Lat. pilare, from pila, column)

pillar, or a lotus stalk, sometimes surmounted by a head of See also:

• HATHOR

Hathor (the Egyptian See also:

• VENUS

Venus) or of Besu (god of the See also:

• TOILET

toilet) ; See also:

• PIN (a doublet with " pen " from Lat. pinna, feather, pinnacle, which is said to contain the same root as irirvs, pine tree, and properly to mean a sharp point or end)

pin-cushions, in the shape of a small round See also:

• TORTOISE

tortoise with holes in the back for toilet pins, which were also of wood with See also:

• DOG

dog-head ends (XI. dynasty, Cairo Museum) ; and perfume boxes such as a fish, the two halves forming the bottom and See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top—the perfume or pomatum was removed by little wooden spoons, one shaped in the form of a See also:

• CARTOUCHE (a French word adapted from the Ital. cartoccio, a roll of paper, Med Lat. carta, for charta, paper)

cartouche emerging from a full-blown lotus, another shaped like the See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck of a See also:

• GOOSE (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. gOs, pl. ges, Ger. Gans, O. Norse gas, from Aryan root, ghans, whence Sans. hansa, Lat. anser (for hanser)
• GOOSE (GAME OF)

goose, a third consisting of a dog See also:

• RUNNING

running with a fish in its mouth, the fish forming the bowl . The See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list might be prolonged, but enough has been said to show to what a See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch of refinement the art of wood-carving had reached thousands of years before the See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth of See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ . Of the work of See also:

• ASSYRIA

Assyria, See also:

• GREECE

Greece and See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, little is actually known except from See also:

• HISTORY

history or inference . It may be safely assumed that the Assyria, craft kept See also:

• PACE (through O. Fr. pas, from Lat. passus, step, properly the stretch of the leg in walking, from pandere, to stretch)
• PACE, RICHARD (c. 1482-1536)

pace with the varying See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste and refinement of Greece and all the older civilizations . Important pieces of wood Rome. sculpture which once existed in Greece and other ancient countries are only known to us from the descriptions of See also:

• PAUSANIAS

Pausanias and other classic writers . Many examples of the wooden images of the gods (toava) were preserved down to late historic times . The See also:

• PALLADIUM (Gr. sraXXit&ov)
• PALLADIUM [symbol Pd, atomic weight Io6.7 (O=16)]

Palladium, or sacred figure of See also:

• PALLAS, PETER SIMON (1741–1811)

Pallas, which was guarded by the Vestal Virgins in Rome and was fabled to have been brought by See also:

• AENEAS

Aeneas from the burning See also:

• TROY
• TROY, JEAN FRANCOIS DE (1679–1752)

Troy, was one of these wooden foasa . First Eleven Centuries after Christ.—Wood-carving examples of this period are extremely rare .

The carved panels of the main doors of St Sabina on the Aventine See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill, Rome, are very interesting specimens of early Christian relief sculpture in wood, dating, as the dresses show, from the 5th century . The doors are made up of a large number of small square panels, each minutely carved with a See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene from the Old or New Testament . The whole feeling of these reliefs is thoroughly classic, though of course in a very debased form . A very fine fragment of See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine art (IIth–12th centuries) is preserved in a monastery at See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount See also:

• ATHOS (Gr. "Aytov "Opos; Turk. Aineros; Ital. Monte Santo)

Athos in See also:

• MACEDONIA

Macedonia . It consists of two panels (one above the other) of relief sculpture, surmounted by a semicircular See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch of conventional foliage springing from columns ornamented with animals in foliage of See also:

• SPIRAL

spiral form . The capitals and bases are square, each face being carved with a figure . It is a wonderfully fine piece of work, conceived in the best decorative spirit . In Scandinavian countries we find some very early work of excellent design . In the See also:

• CHRISTIANIA (officially KRISTIANIA)

Christiania Museum there are some fine chairs Scandina- of the 9th or loth centuries carved with that particular vian work, flat and broad treatment of See also:

• SCROLL

scroll and strapwork so eminently suited to soft wood . In the See also:

• COPENHAGEN (Danish Kjobenhavn)

Copenhagen Museum there are panels from See also:

• ICELAND (Dan. Island)

Iceland in the same style . The celebrated wooden doorways of See also:

• AAL

Aal (A.D . 120o) (See also:

• PLATE

Plate II. fig .

3), Sauland, Flaa, Soloer and•other See also:

• NORWEGIAN

Norwegian churches (Christiania Museum) are only an elaboration of the same treatment of dragons and intricate scroll work, a style which we still see carried on in the See also:

• DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Bbpa,. Lat. fores or valvae; the English word, with other forms common in allied languages, comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. Obpa and Lat. fares)

door-posts of the 15th century in the Nordiska Museum, See also:

• STOCKHOLM

Stockholm, and in the Icelandic work of quite modern times . In these early days the leaf was not much See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in design . The carver depended almost entirely on the stalk, a style of work which has its counterpart in Burmese work of the 17th century . See also:

• GOTHIC

Gothic Period (12th–15th Centuries).—It was towards the end of this See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch that wood-carving reached its culminating point . The See also:

• CHOIR (0. Fr. cuer from Lat. chorus; pronounced quire, and until the end of the 17th century so spelt, the spelling being altered to agree with the Fr. chceur)

choir stalls, See also:

• ROOD (O.E. rod, a stick, another form of " rod, O.E. rodd, possibly cognate with Lat. rudis, a staff)

rood-screens, See also:

• ROOFS

roofs, retables, of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and the See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic countries of Europe, have in See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution, See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance and See also:

• PRO

pro-portion, never at any time been approached . In small designs, in detail, in minuteness, in See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical accuracy, the carver of this time has had his rivals, but for greatness of architectural conception, for a just appreciation of decorative treatment, the designer of the 15th century stands alone . It should always be See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne in mind that colour was the keynote of this scheme . The custom was practically universal, and enough traces remain to show how splendid was the effect of these old Gothic churches and cathedrals in their perfection . The priests in their gorgeous See also:

• VESTMENTS

vestments, the lights, the crucifix, the See also:

• BANNERS, FEAST OF (Jap. Nobori-no-Sekku)

banners and incense, the frescoed or diapered walls, and that crowning See also:

• GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory of Gothic art, the stained See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass, were all in harmony with these beautiful schemes of coloured carved work . Red, See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue, See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green, white and See also:

• GILDING

gilding were the tints as a rule used . Not only were the screens painted incolours, but the parts painted white were often further decorated with delicate lines and sprigs of foliage in conventional pattern . The plain surfaces of the panels were also adorned with saints, often on a background of delicate See also:

• GESSO

gesso diaper, coloured or gilded (Southwold) .

Nothing could exceed the beauty of the triptychs or retables of See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, See also:

• FLANDERS (Flem. Vlaanderen)

Flanders (Plate I. fig. i) or France; carved with scenes from the New Testament in high relief arranged under a delicate See also:

• LACE (corresponding to Ital. merletto, trina; Genoese Pizzo; Ger. spitzen; Fr. dentelle; Dutch kanten; Span. encaje; the English word owes something to the Fr. lassis or laces, but both are connected with the earlier Lat. laqueus; early French laces were

lace-work of canopies and clustered pinnacles glistening with gold and brilliant See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours . In Germany the effect was further enhanced by emphasizing parts of the gilding by means of a transparent See also:

• VARNISH

varnish tinted with red or green, thus giving a special See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone to the metallic lustre . The style of design used during this great period owes much of its interest to the now obsolete custom of employing See also:

• DIRECT

direct the crafts-man and his men, instead of the present-day See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of giving the work to a contractor . It is easy to trace how those bands of carvers travelled about from church to church . In one See also:

• DISTRICT

district the designer would employ a particular form and arrangement of See also:

• VINE

vine leaf, while in another adjoining quite a different style repeatedly appears . Judging by results, this See also:

• SYSTEM

system produced the best class of work both in design and execution . The See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general scheme was of course planned by one See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master mind, but the carrying out of each See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section, each part, each detail, was See also:

• LEFT

left to the individual workman . Hence that variety of treatment, that endless diversity, which gives a See also:

• CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song)

charm and interest to Gothic art, unknown in more symmetrical epochs . The Gothic craftsman appreciated the See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

cardinal fact that in design beautiful detail does not necessarily insure a beautiful See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition, and subordinated the individual part to the general effect . He also often carved in situ, a practice seldom if ever followed in the present day . Here and there one comes across the work of long years ago still unfinished . A half-completed bench-end, a fragment of screen left plain, clearly show that sometimes at least the church was the workshop .

Gothic and See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance: a Comparison.—Gothic design roughly divides itself into two classes: (I) the geometrical, i.e. tracery and diaper patterns, and (2) the foliage designs, where the mechanical scroll of the Renaissance is as a rule absent . The lines of foliage treatment, so common in the bands of the 15th-century rood-screens and the See also:

• PANEL (O. Fr. panel, mod. panneau, piece of cloth, from Med. Lat. pannellus, diminutive of pannus, cloth)

panel work especially of Germany, serve to illustrate the widely different motives of the craftsmen of these two great epochs . Again, while the Renaissance designer as a rule made the two sides of the panel alike, the Gothic carver seldom repeated a single detail . While his main lines and grouping corresponded, his detail differed . Of numberless examples a 15th-century See also:

• CHEST (Gr. Kiarl, Lat. cista, O. Eng. cist, test, &c.)

chest (Plate III. fig . 6) in the Kunstgewerbe Museum, See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, may be referred to . The arrangements of foliage, &c., on top, back and front, are typical of Gothic at its best . End of the 12th century-13oo.—As this section treats of wood-carving in Europe generally, and not of any one See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country alone, the See also:

• DATES

dates just named must be of See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity only approximate . The 13th century was marked not only by great skill both in design and treatment, but also much devotional feeling . The craftsman seems to have not merely carved, but to have carved to the glory of God . At no time was work more delicately conceived or more beautifully cut . This early Gothic style certainly See also:

• LENT (0. Eng. lenclen, " spring," M. Eng. lenten, lente, lent; cf. Dut. lente, Ger. Lenz, " spring," 0. H. Ger. lenzin, lengizin, lenzo, probably from the same root as " long " and referring to " the lengthening days ")

lent itself to fine finish, and in this respect was more suited to See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone treatment than to wood .

But the loving care bestowed on each detail seems to point to a religious devotion which is sometimes absent from later work . Very good examples of capitals (now, alas, divided down the centre) are to be seen in See also:

• PETERBOROUGH

Peterborough cathedral . Scrolls and foliage See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring from See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of columns of four . Some Italian columns of the same date (See also:

• VICTORIA
• VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO DA (C. I540-C. 1613)
• VICTORIA [ALEXANDRINA VICTORIA]

Victoria and See also:

• ALBERT
• ALBERT (1490'1545)
• ALBERT (149o-1568)
• ALBERT (1522–1557)
• ALBERT (FRANCIS CHARLES AUGUSTUS ALBERT EMMANUEL) (1819—1861)
• ALBERT (FRIEDRICH RUDOLF ALBRECHT)
• ALBERT, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS
• ALBERT, MADAME (c. 2805—2846)

Albert Museum) should be compared, much to the See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of the former . See also:

• EXETER
• EXETER, EARL, MARQUESS AND DUKE OF

Exeter cathedral boasts misereres unsurpassed for skilful workmanship; mermaids, dragons, elephants, masks, knights and other subjects introduced into foliage, form the designs . See also:

• SALISBURY
• SALISBURY, EARLS OF
• SALISBURY, ROBERT ARTHUR TALBOT GASCOYNECECIL, 3RD MARQUESS OF (1830-1903)
• SALISBURY, ROBERT CECIL, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1565-1612)
• SALISBURY, THOMAS DE MONTACUTE, 4TH EARL OF (1388-1428)
• SALISBURY, WILLIAM LONGSWORD (or LONGESPEE), EARL OF (d. 1226)

Salisbury cathedral is noted for its See also:

• STALL (0. Eng. steall, stael, cf. Du. stal, Ger. and Swed. Stall, a common Teutonic word for a place, station, place for standing in; the root is the Indo-European std–, to stand, seen also in Latin stabulum, Greek vraO bs, and in stallion, an entire hors

stall elbows, and the See also:

• REREDOS (Anglo-Fr. areredos, from arere, behind, and dos, back)

reredos in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south See also:

• TRANSEPT (from Lat. trans, across, and septum, enclosure; synonymous terms in other languages are Fr. croisee, nef transversee; Ital. crociata; Ger. Querbau, Quersch&)

transept of Addisham, See also:

• KENT
• KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• KENT, JAMES (1763-1847)
• KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748)

Kent, is another fine example testifying to the great skill of the 13th-century wood-carvers . A very interesting set of stalls, the early history of which is unknown, was placed in Barming church, Kent, about the See also:

• YEAR

year 1868 . The See also:

• BOOK

book See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest ends are carved with two scrolls and an animal standing between, and the ends of the stalls with figure sculpture: Christ rescuing souls from See also:

• HELL (0. Eng. hel, a Teutonic word from a root meaning " to cover," cf. Ger. Holle, Dutch hel)

Hell, See also:

• SAMSON (1135-1211)
• SAMSON (cf. Heb. shemesh, " sun ")
• SAMSON, JOSEPH ISIDORE (1793-1871)

Samson slaying the See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

lion, St See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George and the See also:

• DRAGON (Fr. dragon, through Lat. draco, from the Greek; connected with SEpeoµay " see," and interpreted as " sharp-sighted "; O.H. Ger. tracho, dracho, M.H.G. trache, Mod. Ger. Drachen; A.S. draca, hence the equivalent English form " drake," " fire-drake,

dragon, &c . The work of these stalls is that of an artist who knew what effect he wanted to produce and got it . There is in the Berlin Museum a very fine example of a 13th-century See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

prayer See also:

• DESK (from Lat. discus, quoit, in med. sense of " table," cf. " dish " and Ger. Tisch, table, from same source)

desk from Johanniskirche in See also:

• HERFORD

Herford . The front is carved in three panels under See also:

• ARCHES, COURT OF

arches, two with vine leaves and grapes and the other with an oak See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree conventionally treated . Along the arches is carved in Latin " this three-divisioned desk has See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')