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14stones, with thin limestones towards the See also:top and the Hurlet (See also:Renfrew-See also:shire) See also:limestone at the bottom; (I) Calciferous See also:Sandstone See also:series—(b) Upper or See also:Cement See also:
Another isolated patch occurs among the See also:Lead Hills; and lastly, a considerable space in the See also:heart of the See also:Ayrshire coal-See also: Red sandstones and conglomerates, probably of the same See also:age, attain a thickness of several See also:hundred feet at Gruinard See also:Bay on the west coast of the See also:county of See also:Ross and See also:Cromarty . On the east See also:side of Scotland, where so many fragments of the Secondary rocks occur as boulders in the glacial deposits, a large See also:mass of strata was formerly exposed at Linksfield to the north of Elgin, containing fossils which appear to show it to belong to the Rhaetic beds at the top of the Trias . But it was not in See also:place, and was probably a mass transported by See also:ice . Rhaetic strata no doubt exist in situ at no great distance under the North See also:Sea . See also:Jurassic.—The Jurassic system—comprising, in descending See also:order, the subdivisions of Upper Oolites (See also:Portlandian Kimmeridge See also:Clay), Middle Oolites (coal limestones; See also:Oxford clay), Lower Oolites (Great Oolite series; Inferior Oolite series), Lias (Upper, Middle, Lower)-is well represented on both sides of the See also:Highlands . Along the east coast of See also:Sutherland See also:good sections are exposed showing the See also:succession of strata . Among these the Lower and Middle Lias can be identified by their fossils . The Lower Oolite is distinguished by the occurrence in it of some coal-seams, one of which, 3J ft. in thickness, has been worked at Brora . The Middle Oolite consists mostly of sandstones with bands of shale and limestones, and includes fossils which indicate the See also:English horizons from the Kellaways Rock up to the See also:Coral Rag . The lower See also:part of the Kimmeridge Clay is probably represented by sandstones and conglomerates, forming the highest beds of the series in Sutherland . On the west side of the Highlands Jurassic rocks arc found in many detached areas from the Shiant Isles to the See also:southern shores of See also:Mull . Over much of this region they owe their preservation largely to the mass of lavas poured over them in See also:Tertiary time . They have been uncovered, indeed, only at a comparatively See also:recent See also:geological date . They comprise a consecutive series of deposits from the bottom of the Lias up to the Oxford Clay . The Lower, Middle and Upper Lias consist chiefly of shales and shelly limestones, with some sandstones, well seen along the shores of Broadford Bay in Skye and in some of the adjacent islands . The Lower Oolites are made up of sandstones and shales with some limestones, and are overlaid by several hundred feet of an estuarine series of deposits consisting chiefly of thick white sandstones, below and above which lie shales and shelly limestones . These rocks form a prominent feature underneath the See also:basalt terraces of the east side of Skye, Raasay and Eigg . They form the highest members of the Jurassic series, representing probably some part of the Oxford Clay . The next Secondary rocks (Cretaceous) succeed them unconformably . Cretaceous.—Rocks belonging to the Cretaceous system at one time covered considerable areas on both sides of the Highlands, but they have been entirely stripped off the eastern side, while on the western they have been reduced to a few fragmentary patches, which have survived because of the overlying sheets of basalt that have protected them . Some greenish sandstones containing recognizable and characteristic fossils are the equivalents of the Upper See also:Greensand of the south of England . These rocks are found on the south and west coasts of Mull and on the west coast of See also:Argyllshire . They are covered by white sandstones and these by white See also:chalk and marly beds, which represent the Upper Chalk of England . Their existence under the basalt outlier of See also:Ben Iadain in Morven, at a height of i600 ft. above the sea, shows notably how extensively they have been denuded, but also over how large a portion of the Western Highland seaboard they may have spread . They are a prolongation of the Cretaceous deposits of See also:Antrim (See also:Ireland) . Enormous See also:numbers of flints and also less abundant fragments of chalk are found in glacial deposits bordering the See also:Moray Firth . These transported See also:relics show that the Chalk must once have been in place at no great distance, if indeed it did not actually occupy part of See also:Aberdeenshire and the neighbouring counties . Older Tertiary.—Above the highest Secondary rocks on the west coast come terraced plateaus of basalt, which spread out over wide areas in Skye, Eigg, Mull and Morven, and form most of the smaller islets of the See also:chain of the Inner See also:Hebrides . These plateaus are composed of nearly See also:horizontal sheets of basalt—columnar, amorphous or amygdaloidal—which, in Ben More, in Mull, attain a thickness of more than 3000 ft . They are prolonged southwards into Antrim, where similar basalts overlying Secondary strata cover a large territory . Occasional beds of See also:tuff are intercalated among these lavas, and likewise seams of See also:fine clay or shale which have preserved the remains of numerous See also:land-See also:plants . The presence of these fossils indicates that the eruptions were subaerial, and a comparison of them with those elsewhere found among Older Tertiary strata shows that they probably belong to the Oligocene See also:stage of the Tertiary series of formations, and therefore that the basalt eruptions took place in See also:early Tertiary time . The volcanic See also:episode to which these plateaus owe their origin was one of the most important in the geological See also:history of Great See also:Britain . It appears to have resembled in its main features those remarkable outpourings of basalt which have deluged so many thousand square miles of the western area of the See also:United States . The eruptions were connected with innumerable fissures up which the basalt See also:rose and from numerous points on which it flowed out at the See also:surface . These fissures with the basalt that solidified in them See also:row form the vast assemblage of dykes which See also:cross Scotland, the north of England and the north of Ireland . That the volcanic See also:period was a prolonged one is shown by the great denudation of the plateaus before the last eruptions took place . In the Isle of Eigg, for example, the basalts had already been deeply eroded by See also:river-See also:action and into the river-course a current of glassy lava (See also:pitch-stone) flowed . Denudation has continued active ever since, and now, owing to greater hardness and consequent See also:power of resistance, the glassy lava stands up as the prominent and picturesque See also:ridge of the Scuir, while the basalts which formerly rose high above it have been worn down into terraced declivities that slope away from it to the sea . A remarkable feature in the volcanic phenomena was the disruption of the basaltic plateaus by large bosses of See also:gabbro and of various granitoid rocks . These intrusive masses now See also:tower into conspicuous groups of hills—the Cuillins in Skye, the mountains of See also:Rum and Mull, and the rugged heights of Ardnamurchan . See also:Post-Tertiary.—Under the Post-Tertiary division come the records of the Ice Age, when Scotland was buried under sheets of ice which ground down, striated and polished the harder rocks over the whole See also:country, and See also:left behind them the widespread See also:accumulation of clay, See also:gravel and sand known as Glacial Deposits . The Till or See also:Boulder Clay, the most universal See also:kind of See also:Drift—which covers much of the Lowlands to a See also:depth sometimes of See also:loo ft., and along the flanks of hills reaches a height of 2000 ft. or more—was pushed along by ice radiating from different centres, See also:evidence of which is to be seen in the direction of the striae on the rocky surface of the country as well as in the See also:dispersion of boulders and stones from recognizable districts . Thus remains of Highland See also:schists have been See also:borne across the Central See also:Plain and deposited on the See also:northern margin of the Southern Uplands . Above the Boulder Clay are found sands and gravels, along with perched boulders which, by their source and position, indicate the direction and thickness of the ice that carried them . Moraines of the last of the glaciers are numerous throughout the Highlands . Recent.—The youngest formations are the raised beaches—consisting sometimes of ledges cut in the rock, as on See also:Lismore and other parts of See also:Loch Linnhe, and sometimes of heaped-up beds of sand and gravel—river terraces, See also:lake deposits, See also:peat-mosses, tracts of blown sand—notably seen in the See also:dunes of Culbin, Rattray Head, See also:Aberdeen, See also:Montrose and Tents See also:Muir on the east coast, and at See also:Stevenston, See also:Troon, See also:Ayr, Glenluce and along North and South See also:Uist on the west . These are related to the See also:present configuration of the land and contain remains of plants and animals still living on its surface . (A . GE.; J . A . M.) See also:Climate In considering the climate of Scotland the first place must be assigned to the temperature of various districts during the months of the See also:year,,since this, and not the mean temperature of the whole year, gives the See also:chief characteristics of climate . Thus, while the See also:annual temperatures of the west and east coasts are nearly equal, the summer and See also:winter temperatures are very different . At Portree (on the east coast of Skye) the mean temperatures of See also:January and See also:July are 390 and 56.8° F., whereas at See also:Perth they are 37.5° and 59.0° he prominent feature of the isotherms of the winter months is their north and south direction, thus pointing not to the See also:sun but to the warm See also:waters of the See also:Atlantic as the more powerful See also:influence in determining the climate at this See also:season through the agency of the prevailing See also:westerly winds . In exceptionally See also:cold seasons the ocean protects all places in its more immediate neighbourhood against the severe frosts which occur in inland situations . While this influence of the ocean is See also:felt at all seasons, it is most strikingly seen in winter and is more decided in proportion as the locality is surrounded by the warm waters of the Atlantic . The influence of the North Sea is similarly apparent, but in a less degree . Along the whole of the eastern coast, from the Pentland Firth southwards, temperature is higher than what is found a little inland . In summer, everywhere, See also:latitude for latitude, temperature is lower in the west than in the east and inland situations, but in winter the inland climates are the colder . The course of the isothermal lines in summer is very instructive .
Thus the See also:line of 59° passes from the Solway directly northwards to the north of See also:Perthshire and thence curves See also:round east-See also:
It thus happens that the driest climates in the east are those which have to south-westwards the broadest extent of mountainous ground, and that the wettest eastern climates are those which are least protected by high lands on the west
.
The breakdown of the See also:watershed between the Firths of See also:Clyde and Forth exposes southern Perthshire, the counties of See also:Clackmannan and Kinross, and nearly the whole of See also:Fife to the clouds and rains of the west, and their climates are consequently wetter than those of any others of the eastern slopes of the country
.
The driest climates of the east are in See also:Tweeddale about See also:Kelso and See also:Jedburgh, the See also:low grounds of East Lothian, and those on the Moray Firth from Elgin round to See also:Dornoch
.
In these districts the annual rainfall averages 26 in., whereas over extensive breadths in the west it exceeds See also:Ioo in., in Glencroe being nearly 130 in., and on the top of Ben See also:Nevis it may reach 15o in
.
II
.
ECONOMIC CONDITIONS, &C
.
See also:Population.—At the end of the 15th See also:century it is conjectured that the population of Scotland did not exceed 500,000—Edinburgh having about 20,000 inhabitants, Perth about 9000, and Aberdeen, See also:Dundee and St See also:Andrews about 4000 each
.
By the See also:Union with England (1707) the population is supposed to
have grown to 1,000,000
.
In 1755, according to the returns furnished by the See also:clergy to the Rev
.
Dr See also: The increase at succeeding decades has been continuous though fluctuating in amount, and in 1901 the population amounted to 4,472,103 (See also:females, 2,298,348) . In 1902 the Registrar-See also:General for Scotland calculated that if the See also:rate of increase (11.09 %) See also:manifest during 1891-1901 were uniformly maintained, the population would See also:double itself in the course of about 66 years . See also:Civil Counties . Area in Population . Pop. per sq. m . Acres . 1891 . 1901 . 1901 . I . Northern . 352,889 28,711 28,166 51 I . See also:Shetland . . 2 . See also:Orkney . . 240,476 30,453 28,699 76 3 . See also:Caithness . . 438,878 37,177 33,870 49 4 . Sutherland 1,297,849 21,896 21,440 II 2,330,092 118,237 112,175 31 II . North-Western . 1,976,707 78,727 76,450 25 5 . Ross and Cromarty . 6 . See also:Inverness . 2,695,037 90,12I 90,104 21 4,671,744 168,848 166,554 23 7 . See also:Nairn . . . 8 . Elgin (or 305,119 43,471 44,800 94 Moray) . . 9 . See also:Banff . . . 403,364 61,684 61,488 98 10 . Aberdeen . . 1,261,887 284,036 304,439 154 II . Kincardine . 243,974 35,492 40,923 107 2,317,773 433,838 460,941 127 IV . East Midland . 559,171 277,735 284,082 325 12 . See also:Forfar . . . 13 . Perth . . . 1,595,774 122,185 123,283 49 14 . Fife . . . 322,844 190,365 218,840 434 15 . Kinross 52,410 6,673 6,981 85 16 . Clackmannan . 34,927 33,140 32,029 587 2,565,126 630,098 665,215 166 V . West Midland . 288,842 118,021 142,291 315 17 . Stirling . 18 . Dumbarton 157,433 98,014 113,865 463 19 . See also:Argyll . . . 1,990,471 74,085 73,642 24 20 . See also:Bute . . 139,658 18,404 18,787 86 2,576,404 308,524 348,585 87 VI . South-Western . 153,332 230,812 268;980 1123 21 . Renfrew . . 22 . Ayr . 724,523 226,386 254,468 225 23 . See also:Lanark . . 562,821 1,105,899 1,339,327 1523 1,440,676 1,563,097 1,862,775 827 24 . See also:Linlithgow 25 . Edinburgh 234,339 434,276 488,796 1335 26 . See also:Haddington 171,01I 37,377 38,665 145 27 . Berwick . . 292,577 32,290 30,824 67 28 . See also:Peebles . . 222,599 14,750 15,066 43 29 . See also:Selkirk . . 170,762 27,712 23,356 88 1,168,149 599,213 662,415 363 30 . Roxburgh . . 31 . Dumfries . 686,302 74,245 72,571 68 32 . See also:Kirkcudbright 575,565 39,985 39,383 44 33 . See also:Wigtown . . 311,609 36,062 32,685 67 See also:Grand See also:Total 1,999,536 203,792 193,443 62 SCOTLAND 19,069,500 4,025,647 4,472,103 150 In 1901 there were 150 persons to each square mile, and 4.3 acres (excluding inland waters, tidal See also:rivers and See also:foreshore) to each See also:person . The distribution of population is illustrated in the preceding table, which gives the names and areas of the counties and other particulars . In the northern, north-western and southern divisions the population declined during the See also:decade, the fifteen counties thus affected being, in the order of decrease, beginning with the shire in which it was smallest, Inverness, Banff, Argyll, Kirkcudbright, Shetland, Sutherland, Dumfries, Ross and Cromarty, Clackmannan, Berwick, Orkney, Roxburgh, Caithness, Wigtown and Selkirk . It will thus be seen that the far north and far south alike decreased in population, the decline being largely due to See also:physical conditions, though it need not be supposed that the limit of population was reached in either area . The most sparsely inhabited county was Sutherland, the most densely Lanark . The counties in which there was the largest increase in the decennial period-with Linlithgow first, followed by Lanark, Stirling, Renfrew, Dumbarton and thirteen others-principally belonged to the Central Plain, or Lowlands, in which, broadly stated, See also:industries and manufactures, See also:trade, See also:commerce and See also:agriculture and educational facilities have attained their highest development . In every county the population increased between 18oI and 1841, the increase being more than to % in each county with the exception of Argyll, Perth and Sutherland . After 1841, however, the population in several Highland shires-in which the clearance of crofters to make way for See also:deer was one of the most strongly-felt grievances among the See also:Celtic part of the See also:people-in the islands, and in some of the southern counties, diminished . The next table affords a comparison of the numbers of the population as grouped in towns, villages and rural districts, and in the mainland and islands . Mainland and Islands, 1891 and Igo" Groups . Population . Percentage of Pop. in G each to total Pop . 1891 . 1901 . 1891 . 190I . Towns 1 . . . 2,631,298 3,120,241 65.37 69.77 Villages 1 465,836 466,053 I I.57 10.42 Rural districts . 928,513 885,809 23.06 19.81 Total 4,025,647 4,472,103 100.00 100.00 Mainland . . 3,865,748 4,316,551 96.03 96.52 Islands . . . 159,899 155,552 3.97 3.48 Total 4,025,647 4,472,103 10000 I0o•oo 1 Villages have populations of from 300 to 2000; towns from 2000 upwards . Table III. gives the population of towns with more than 30,000 inhabitants .
See also:Town
.
1881
.
1891
.
1901
.
See also:Glasgow
.
.
.
. 551,415 565,839 (of enlarged 760,468
area, 6 8,198)
Edinburgh
.
.
.
. 228,357 261,225 (of enlarged 316,523
area)
Dundee 140,239 153,330 160,878
Aberdeen 105,189 121,623 153, 503
See also:Paisley 55,638 166,425 79,354
See also:Leith 59,485 67,700 76,668
See also:Govan 50,492 63,625 76,35o
Greenock 66,704 63,423 67,672
See also:Partick 27,410 36,538 54,281
See also:Coatbridge
.
24,812 30,034 36,991
See also:Kilmarnock 23,901 28,447 34,165
See also:Kirkcaldy 23,632 27,151 34,063
Perth 28,98o 29,899 32,886
See also: Welsh See also:nationality was most marked in Motherwell (with 0.250%) . Those of See also:British-Colonial See also:birth were most numerous in Edinburgh (with 0.933 %), and foreigners in Glasgow (with 0.890), Leith (with 0.741) and Hamilton (with 0.720) . In addition to the 17,654 See also:resident foreigners there were 4973 foreigners casually in Scotland at the taking of the census in 1901 (1839 men and See also:women on See also:board See also:foreign and British vessels), raising the total of foreigners actually enumerated to 22,627 (See also:males 14,448), of whom 10,373 were of See also:Russian nationality, 4051 of See also:Italian, and 3232 of See also:German . Table IV. shows the nationalities of the people in 1891 and 1901 . Scotland, 1891 . Scotland, 1901 . Where Born . Percentage Percentage Number. of Pop Number. of Pop . Scotland . . . 3,698,700 91.63 4,085,755 91,361 Ireland . . . 184,807 4'84 205,064 4,585 England . . . 108,736 2.70 131,350 2'937 See also:Wales 2,309 0.06 2,673 0,060 Isle of See also:Man and 927 0.02 1,058 0,024 the Channel Islands 13,607 0.39 15,907 0,355 British Colonies . British born 8,051 0.20 12,642 0,283 abroad, by See also:naturalization 8,510 0.21 17,654 0'395 and at sea Foreigners Total 4,025,647 100 4,472,103 100 Vital See also:Statistics.-In Table VI. is shown the number of births, deaths, marriages and illegitimate births for the decades ending 1870, 1880, 1890 and 1900 . Table VII. gives the percentages to the population of the births, deaths and marriages in the four decades specified, along with the ratio of See also:illegitimacy to the total number of births in the same periods . 1861-zgoo . 1861-1870 1871-1880 1881-1890 1891-1900 (inclusive) . (inclusive) . (inclusive) . (inclusive) . Births . . 1,120,791 1,232,311 1,251,930 1,280,044 Deaths . . 706,195 763,948 743,582 781,860 Marriages 224,222 253,550 259,388 298,664 Illegitimate Izo,o6, 108,260 102,128 90,981 births . . The counties in which the highest percentages of illegitimate births were found were Wigtown, Dumfries, Kirkcudbright and Peebles in the south; Elgin, Banff and Aberdeen in the north-east, and Caithness in the north; the shires showing the lowest percentages were Clackmannan, Dumbarton and Shetland . Percentages of Illegitimacy to total Births . Rate . (inclusive) 1871-1880 1881-1890 1891-1900 ive) . (inclusive) . (inclusive) . (inclusive) . Birth . . 3.48 3.47 3.22 3'01 See also:Death . . 0.19 2.15 1.91 1.84 See also:Marriage 0.69 0.71 0.66 0.70 Percentages 9.81 8.79 8.15 7.II of illegiti- See also:mate births to total births Occupations of thePeople.-Table VI I I. divides the people according to occupations . The most noteworthy feature in this connexion is the great diminution that took place within the lntercensal period (1891-1901) in the unproductive class, which to some extent accounts for the increase in the number of the See also:industrial and commercial classes .
Poor See also:Relief.-Bef ore the See also:Reformation, relief
of the poor had been the See also:duty of the See also: y' English . Scotland . . . . 4,472,103 28,106 0.63 202,700 4'53 Northern portion . 1,753,470 27,854 1.59 160,915 9.18 Southern portion 2,718,633 252 0.01 41,785 1.54 Northern division 112,175 489 0.43 17,084 15.23 North-western „ 166,554 23,893 14'34 82,573 49'58 North-eastern „ 460,941 20 o•oI 5,125 I•II East-midland „ 665,215 95 o•oI 13,818 2.06 West-midland „ 348,585 3,357 0'96 42,315 12.14 South-western „ 1,862,775 162 0.01 34,289 1.84 South-eastern „ 662,415 89 0.01 7,002 i•o6 Southern „ 193,443 I 0.00 494 o•26 Number engaged in each Class of Occupation . Percentage engaged in each Class of Occupation . Occupations . 1891 190I . 1891 . 1901 . Males . Females . Total . Males .. Females . Total . Males . Females . Males . Females . Total occupied and 1 "" unoccupied (aged lo years and up- 1,446,209 1,599,453 3,045,662 1,656,081 1,790,242 3,446,323 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 wards) J Engaged in occu- 1,203,909 543,828 1,747,737 1,391,188 591,624 1,982,812 83.25 34.00 84.00 33.05 pations . . . Retired or unoccu- 242,300 1,055,625 1,297,925 264,893 1,198,618 1,463,511 16.75 66•oo 16•oo 66.95 pied . . . • Classes . 59,053 23,051 82,104 67,827 33,234 loi,o61 4.08 1'44 4'IO 1.86 r . Professional 2 . Domestic 29,163 190,057 219,220 26,755 174,475 201,230 2.02 11.88 1.61 9'75 3 . Commercial 174,558 10,276 184,834 221,579 24,136 245,715 12.07 0.64 13.38 1'35 4 . Agriculture and 205,827 30,018 235,845 196,581 40,730 237,311 14'23 1.88 11.87 2.27 Fishing . 5 . Industrial 735,308 290,426 1,025,734 878,446 85 IH•16 17'82 6 . Unoccupied and 319,49 1,970 1 50 53'04 ,495 non-productive 242,300 1,055,625 1,297,925 264,893 1,198,618 1,463,511 16.75 66•oo 16•oo 66.95 towns, and poorhouses, where those indigent who are alone in the See also:world without any one to care for them find See also:food and shelter, began to be general in the loth century . Hence arises the prevalence of out-relief, one of the distinctive features of the Scottish poor law . The act of 1579, however, proved largely inoperative . The See also:provision of relief passed from the justices to the ministers and kirk-sessions, who by an See also:edict of the Privy See also:Council, in 1692, were required to draw up a See also:list of the poor twice a year, and rates were levied only when collections in the church " plates " were insufficient .
For 150 years nothing was done to systematize poor relief, and even in 1842 about See also:half of the parishes were yet unassessed to the poor
.
The total in-adequacy of the voluntary system to See also:cope with genuine See also:distress, in respect both of contributions and the dispensing of alms, led in 1845 to the passing of an act which made the parish the poor-relief area, substituted the parochial board for the kirk-session where recourse was had to a rate, made the See also:appointment of inspectors of the poor and medical See also:officers compulsory, and set up a system of central administrative See also:control known as the Board of Supervision for the Relief of the Poor, with headquarters in Edinburgh
.
The act did not provide for compulsory See also:assessment, but this was virtually accomplished by the vigilance of the Board, which demanded of See also:local authorities increased care and more liberal relief, with the result that in 1894 only 46 out of 848 parishes remained unassessed
.
In this year a See also:change in the governing See also:body was affected, the Local Government Board for Scotland being constituted and replacing the Board of Super-See also:vision, while the parochial boards made way for parish See also:councils
.
As the authorities cannot give relief to those able to See also:work, there are no casual wards in Scotland, vagrants having to pay for their See also:night's lodging, or find it in the See also:police station or elsewhere
.
Every parish has to support its own poor, that is, natives or those who have acquired a See also:settlement by living in it for five years, but relief is given in the parish in which it is applied for, the cost being recovered from the parish of birth or settlement afterwards
.
For the sick poor the larger towns provide hospitals and dispensaries, besides medical attendance at the homes of the poor, while in rural districts there are cottage hospitals, See also:village sick-rooms, and sick wards in the poorhouses
.
The mentally afflicted are sent to the See also:asylum if they are dangerous, or kept in the licensed wards of poorhouses, or, if they are harm-less or See also:imbecile, boarded out
.
The expense of pauper lunacy is only partially borne by the parish
.
The See also:district lunacy board (practically a See also:joint-See also:committee of the county and See also:burgh councils), aided by a See also:parliamentary See also:
At first an adoptive act was introduced, under which the Commissioners of See also:Supply, who then managed county business—resident landowners in See also:possession of landed See also:estate to the annual value of boo--were empowered to raise a police force in the counties; but the want of See also:common policy and initiative led in 1857 to the compulsory institution of a police force throughout the country
.
Burghs having a population of more than 7000 might furnish their own police, and smaller burghs were policed as part of the county to which they belonged by the See also:standing joint-committee (composed equally of Commissioners of Supply and members of the county council), but no new police burgh the population of which was under 20,000 was to be See also:free to police itself
.
All the constabulary forces, excepting the Orkney and Shetland police, are annually inspected as to efficiency and reported on to the Secretary of See also:State for Scotland
.
See also:Education
.
(a) Elementary Schools.—The system of schools which prevailed till the Education Act of 1872 dated from 1696,, when the Act for Settling of Schools was passed—one of the last but not the least of the achievements of the Scots See also:Parliament—providing for the maintenance of a school in every parish by the kirk-session and heritors, with power to the Commissioners of Supply to appoint a schoolmaster in See also:case the See also:primary authorities made See also:default
.
The schoolmaster held his See also:office for life, co-education was the See also:rule from the first, and the school was undenominational
.
The various religious secessions in Scotland led to the See also:founding of a large number of sectarian and subscription schools, and at the Disruption in 1843 the Free Church made provision for the See also:secular as well as the religious instruction of the children of its members
.
The Education Act of 1872 abolished the old management of the parish schools and provided for the creation of districts (burgh, parish or group of parishes) under the control of school boards, of which there are 972 in Scotland, elected every three years by the ratepayers, male and See also:female
.
Since that date the most important changes effected in the elementary education system were the abolition, in 1886, of individual inspection of the lower See also:standards—afterwards extended to the whole of the standards, the inspectors applying a collective test, the " See also:block-grant " system, to the efficiency of a school—and the abolition of school fees (1889) for the compulsory standards, the loss being made up principally by a parliamentary grant, and partly by a proportion, earmarked for the purpose, of the proceeds of the Local See also:Taxation (Customs and See also:Excise) Act 189o, and the Education and Local Taxation See also:Account (Scotland) Act 1892
.
The capitation grant in relief of fees is at the rate of 12s., of which See also:ros. is furnished by the parliamentary grant and 2S. by the other See also:sources
.
See also:
They were under the supervision of the See also:chancellor of each See also:diocese, and were mainly devoted to studies preparatory for the Church
.
Before the Reformation schools for general education were attached to many religious houses, and in 1496 the first Scottish act was passed requiring substantial householders to send their eldest sons to school from the time they were eight or nine years old until they were " competentlie founded and have perfite Latin." In 156o See also:
See also:Advantage was largely taken of this power, and the grant came to be succinctly described as the " See also:Residue " grant (£97,000 a year)
.
The Department established in each county a body known as the secondary education committee, chosen by the county council and the See also:chair-men of the school boards, which is charged with the See also:expenditure of its See also:share of the grant
.
The committee exists also in a few of the largest burghs, the members being in this case appointed by the town council, school board, and sometimes the trustees of educational endowments
.
In virtue of a Continuation Class See also:code, technical and specialized education is given in See also:day and, chiefly, evening classes in various centres, the See also:principal being the See also:Heriot-See also:Watt See also:College, Edinburgh; the Edinburgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture; the Glasgow and West of See also:Scot-land Technical College; the Glasgow School of Art; the Glasgow See also:Athenaeum Commercial College; the West of Scotland Agri-cultural College; the Dundee Technical See also:Institute; See also:
St Mungo's College, Glasgow, incorporated in 1889 under a Board of Trade licence, has medicinal and law faculties, and See also: But the abolition of the law of See also:hypothec in 1879—under which the landlord had a See also:lien for See also:rent upon the produce of the land, the See also:cattle and See also:sheep fed on it, and the live stock and implements used in husbandry—the Ground See also:Game Act of 1880, the several Agricultural Holdings Acts, and the construction of See also:light See also:railways improved matters and established a better under-standing . The period of general depression which set in before 1885 was surmounted in Scotland with comparatively little trouble . A large amount of See also:capital was lost by tenants, and a few farms were thrown here and there upon the landlords' hands, but in no district was rent extinguished or were holdings abandoned . The sub-commissioners who reported to the Royal See also:Commission on Agriculture in 1895 found nearly everywhere a demand, sometimes competition for farms, persisting throughout the crisis . In Banff, Nairn, Elgin and several southern counties rent reductions varied from 25 to 30% . In Perth, Fife, Forfar and Aberdeen the See also:average was 30%; but in nearly all the counties, towards the and at least of the period of depression, the coexistent demand and competition for farms were observable . In some districts in the west rents See also:fell very little; in others, especially sheep-farming districts, the fall was very severe . In Ayrshire the figure varied from 5 to 20%; for Dumfriesshire 16% was given as a See also:fair average, but here too the distressed See also:farmer was compelled to admit that if he gave up his holding there were others ready to take it . Afterwards, owing to the increased See also:attention given to stock-fattening and dairying, and to a rise in prices, farming reached a See also:condition of See also:equilibrium, and the most noticeable residuum of the period of depression was the large intrusion of the See also:butcher and grazier class into the farmer class proper . Caithness-shire was declared to be the greatest sufferer by the period of depression; rents fell in that county by 30 to 50% on large farms, 20 to 30% on See also:medium, and to to 6o% on small farms . Nevertheless, the decline in the value of land was serious . According to the reports of the Inland See also:Revenue Commissioners, the See also:gross income derived from the ownership of lands in Scotland was returned in 1879-188o at £7,769,303 . After that year a continuous fall set in, and in 1901-1902 the amount returned was only £5,911,836, a drop in twenty-five years of £1,857,467 . These figures refer to land, whether cultivated or not, including ornamental grounds, gardens attached to houses when exceeding one See also:acre in extent, teinds or tithe-rent See also:charge commuted under the Lands See also:Commutation Acts, See also:farm-houses and farm-buildings . The crofters of the Highlands and islands had their grievances also . During the first half of the rgth century wholesale clearances had been effected in many districts, and the crofters were compelled either to emigrate or to See also:crowd into areas already congested, where, eking out a See also:precarious living by following the See also:fisheries, they led a hard and miserable existence . At last after agitation and discontent had become rife, government appointed a royal commission to inquire into the whole question in 1883 . It reported next year, and in 1886 the Crofters' Holdings Act was passed . Amending statutes of succeeding years added to the commissioners' See also:powers of fixing fair rents and cancelling arrears, the power of enlarging crofts and common grazings . Since then See also:political agitation has practically died out, though the material condition of the class has not markedly improved, except where, with government aid, See also:crofter fishermen have been enabled to buy better boats; but in some districts, even in the See also:island of See also:Lewis, substantial houses have been built . After the passing of the act (1886) the Crofters' Commission in 15 years considered applications for rent and revaluation of holdings which amounted to £82,790, and fixed the fair rent at £61,233, or an annual reduction of £21,557; of arrears of rent amounting to £184,962 they cancelled £124,180, and also assigned 48,949 acres in enlargement of holdings . Under the Congested Districts (Scotland) Act of 1897, £35,000 a year was devoted within certain districts of Argyll, Inverness, Ross and Cromarty, Sutherland, Caithness, Orkney and Shetland, to assisting See also:migration, improving the breeds of live stock, See also:building piers and See also:boat-slips, making roads and See also:bridges, developing See also:home industries, &c . In Table IX. will be found a See also:classification of the holdings in 1895, 1903 and 1905 . The figures show that the holdings under 5o acres constituted fully two-thirds of the total holdings and that, though no very decided alteration in the size of farms was in progress, the larger portion of the cultivated land was held in farms of between 5o and 300 acres . The average holding in 1905 was 61.7 acres . Table X. shows the total area, the cultivated area and the area under See also:grain crops, See also:green crops, See also:grasses and See also:miscellaneous crops . Comparison between 1905 and the average for 1871-18i5 clearly demonstrates the change which Scottish agriculture had undergone . Though practically the same amount of land was brought under the Total Area, including Inland See also:Water, but excluding Foreshore and Tidal Water, 19,458,728 Acres . Crops . Average 1905 . 1871-1875 . Acres . Acres . Total area under Crops and Grasses.* 4,560,825 4,884,985 Permanent Pasture- .. 148,342 For See also:Hay . Not for Hay .. 1,302,384 Total 1,084, 983 ,450,726 Arable Land . 3,475,842 3,430,259 Grain Crops- 122,513 48,641 See also:Wheat - . See also:Barley or Bere .. 252,105 212,134 Oats 1,007,339 962,972 See also:Rye Io,48o 5,598 Beans . 26,746 10,346 Peas 2,332 910 Total 1,421,515 1,240,601 * Not including See also:mountain and See also:heath land . Total Area, including Inland Water, but excluding Foreshore and Tidal Water, 19,458,728 Acres . Crops . Average 1905 1871-1875 . Acres . Acres . Potatoes . 167,88o 144,265 Turnips and Swedes 503,709 445,306 Mangold 1,748 2,389 See also:Cabbage, See also:Kohl-Rabi and See also:Rape 4,656 14,725 Vetches or Tares i5 828 8,557 .. Other Crops . 2,699 Total 693,821 617 ,941 See also:Clover, See also:Sainfoin and Grasses under .. 427,686 Rotation- For Hay . Not for Hay . . . 1,130,591 Total 1,338,106 1,558,277 See also:Flax 731 4 Small See also:Fruit . t 6,493 See also:Bare See also:Fallow . 21,669 6,943 t Not separately distinguished . plough, there was a considerable fall in the acreage under grain and green crops, but this wal rather more than balanced by the increased area under grass, showing that the tendency towards the raising of live stock has become more widespread and more pronounced . Only a little more than one-See also:fourth of the area of Scotland is cultivated, while in England only one-fourth is left un- cultivated; but it should be borne in mind It " permanent pasture " does not include mountainous districts, which not only m so large a proportion of the surface but o, in their heaths and natural grasses, ply a scanty herbage for sheep and cattle, 04,388 acres being used for grazing in )5 . Oats remain the See also:staple grain See also:crop, d barley, though fluctuating from year to year, is steadied by the demands of the distillers . Wheat showed a marked decline in most years from 1893 to 1904 . Table XI., how- ever, shows that in most cases, even when the acreage occupied by crops is smaller, the estimated yield to the acre shows a distinct improvement, the result of enhanced skill and See also:industry, and the Crops . Estimate Total Produce . Average Average Yield to Yield to the Acre. the Acre . 1885. i9o5 . 1885 . 1905 . Wheat-Bushels 1,893,501 2,065,381 34.33 42.46 Barley „ 8,245,820 8,004,446 34.72 37.73 Oats „ 33,407,127 35,277,807 31'93 36'63 Beans „ 709,577 364,818 30.67 36.76 Peas 37,464 17,108 21.41 27.16 Potatoes-Tons 803,523 979,541 5.39 6.97 . Turnips and 15'39 16•o8 Swedes-Tons 6,496,189 . , 7,162,794 See also:adoption of more scientific methods . In 1905 the yield of hay from clover, sainfoin and rotation grasses amounted to 666,985 tons, or 31.19 cwts, to the acre, and from permanent pasture 209,908 tons, or 28.46 cwts. to the acre, or 876,893 tons of all kinds of hay from 575,220 acres . Table XII. shows the number of live stock in 1905, with the average for the period ,871-1875, and illustrates the extent to which farmers have turned their attention to stock in preference to crops . The cattle stock has risen steadily, and a regular increase in the number under 2 years points to the healthy state of the breeding industry . The breeds include the Ayrshire, noted milkers and specially adapted for See also:dairy farms (which prevail in the south-west), which in this respect have largely supplanted the See also:Galloway in their native district ; the polled See also:Angus or Aberdeen, fair milkers, but valuable for their beef-making dualities, and on this account, as well as their hardihood, in great favour in the north-east, where cattle-feeding has been carried to perfection; and the West Highland or Kyloe breed, a picturesque breed with long horns, shaggy coats and decided See also:colours-black, red, dun, cream and brindle-that thrives well on See also:wild and healthy pasture . The See also:special breeds of sheep are Years. i to 5 Acres . 5 to 50 Acres . 50 to 300 Acres . Above 300 Acres. thv thi No . Acres . No . Acres . No . Acres . No . Acres . for als 1895 20,150 65,891 _ 608,390 22,802 2,935,184 2766 1,284,461 Sul 33,921 1903 19,560 63,961 34,0,8 610,669 23,075 2,970~325 2730 1,268,843 9,1 1905 18,685 ... 34,673 ... 23,055 ... 27, 8 ... 19' an the fine-woolled of Shetland, the blackfaced of the Highlands, the Cheviots, natives of the hills from which they are named, a favourite breed in the south, though Border Leicesters and other English Stock . Average 1905 . 1871-1875 . Horses 156,520 Used for agricultural purposes, in- cluding mares kept for breeding Unbroken . . . 49,668 Total 178,652 206,188 Cattle 392,252 437,138 Cows and heifers in See also:milk or in See also:calf . Other cattle, 2 years and above 267,920 276,33o Other cattle, under 2 years 467,165 513,827 Total . 1,127,337 1,227,295 Sheep .. 2,918,544 Ewes kept for breeding Other sheep, I year and above 4,735,008 1,383,200 Other sheep, under I year .
2,426,114 2,722,467
Total 7,161,122 7,024,211
Pigs 166,148 130,214
breeds, as well as a variety of crosses, are kept for winter feeding on lowland farms
.
The principal breeds of horses are the Shetland and Highland ponies, and the Clydesdale See also:draught
.
Orchards and Forests.—The acreage devoted to orchards rose from 1562 in 1880 to 2482 in 1905
.
The chief areas for See also:tree and small fruit are Clydesdale and the Carse of See also:Gowrie, but there are also productive orchards in the shires of Haddington, Stirling, Ayr and Roxburgh, while See also:market-gardening has See also:developed in the neighbourhood of the larger towns
.
In 1812 See also:woods and plantations occupied 907,695 acres, of which 501,469 acres were natural woods and 406,226 planted
.
Within sixty years this area had declined to 734,490 acres, but with renewed attention to forestry and encouragement of planting the area had grown in 1895 to 878,675 acres; by 1905, however, the acreage was practically unchanged
.
Inverness, Aberdeen and Perth are naturally the best wooded shires
.
The See also:modern plantations consist mostly of Scots See also:fir with a sprinkling of See also:larch
.
Deer Forests and Game, &c.—Deer forests in 1900 covered 2,287,297 acres, an increase of 575,405 acres since 1883
.
The red deer is See also:peculiar to the Highlands, but the fallow deer is not uncommon in the See also:
See also:Hares and rabbits, the latter especially, are abundant
.
See also:Fox-See also:hunting is fashionable in most of the southern shires, but See also:otter-hunting is practically See also:extinct
.
The See also:bear, See also:wolf and See also:beaver, once common, have long ceased to be, the last wolf having been killed, it is said, in 168o by See also:Sir Ewen See also:Cameron of Lochiel
.
The wild See also:cat may yet be found in the Highlands, and the See also:polecat, See also:ermine and See also:pine See also:marten still exist, the See also:golden See also:eagle and the white-tailed eagle haunt the wilder and more remote mountainous districts, while the other large birds of See also:prey, like the See also:osprey and See also:kite, are becoming scarce
.
The islands, rocks and cliffs and some inland lochs are frequented in multitudes by a great variety of water-See also:fowl
.
Fisheries.—The Scottish seaboard is divided for administrative purposes into twenty-seven See also:fishery districts, namely, on the east coast, See also:Eyemouth, Leith, See also:Anstruther, Montrose, Stonehaven, Aberdeen, See also:Peterhead, See also:Fraserburgh, Banff, See also:Buckie, Findhorn, Cromarty, Helmsdale, Lybster, See also:Wick (15); on the north, Orkney, Shetland (2) ; on the west, See also:Stornoway, See also:Barra, Loch See also:Broom, Loch Carron and Skye, Fort See also: In 1905 the total catch of fish of all kinds (excepting See also:shell-fish) amounted to 7,856,310 cwts., and in 1907 (the highest recorded to 1910), 9,018,154 cwts . (£3,149,127) . The annual value of the shell-fish (lobsters, crabs, oysters, mussels, clams,periwinkles, cockles, shrimps) is about £73,000 . The See also:weight of See also:salmon carried by Scottish railways and steamers in 1894 was 2437 tons, and in 1903 it was 2047 tons . In 1894 the number of boxes of Scottish . salmon delivered at Billingsgate market in See also:London was 15,489, and in 1903 it was 15,103, being more than half of the salmon received then from all parts of Europe, including Irish and English consignments . In 1903 the See also:Tay rentals came to £22,902, the highest then recorded . The other considerable rentals were the See also:Dee £18,392, See also:Tweed £15,389 and See also:Spey £8146 . Roads.—In the 12th century an act was passed providing that the highways between market-towns should be at least 20 ft. broad, Over the principal rivers at this early period there were bridges near the most populous places, as over the Dee near Aberdeen, the Esk at See also:Brechin, the Tay at Perth and the Forth near Stirling . Until the 16th century, however, See also:traffic between distant places was carried on chiefly by See also:pack-horses . The first stage-See also:coach in Scotland was that which ran between Edinburgh and Leith in 161o . In 1658 there was a fortnightly stage-coach between Edinburgh and London, but afterwards it would appear to have been discontinued for many years . Separate acts en-joining the justices of the See also:peace, and afterwards along with them the commissioners of supply, to take measures for the maintenance of roads were passed in 1617, 1669, 1676 and 1686 . These provisions had reference chiefly to what afterwards came to be known as " See also:statute labour roads," intended primarily to supply a means of communication within the several parishes . They were kept in repair by the tenants and cotters, and, when their labour was not sufficient, by the landlords, who were required to " stent " (assess) themselves, customs also being sometimes levied at bridges, ferries and causeways . By separate local acts the " statute labour " was in many cases replaced by a payment called " See also:conversion money," and the General Roads Act of 1845 made the alteration universal . The Roads and Bridges (Scotland) Act of 1878 entrusted the control of the roads to royal and police burghs and in the counties to road trustees, from whom it was transferred by the Local Government Act of 1888 to county councils, the management, however, being in the hands of district committees . The Highlands had good military roads earlier than the See also:rest of the country . The project, begun in 1725 under the direction of General See also:George See also:Wade, took ten years to See also:complete, and the roads were afterwards kept in repair by an annual parliamentary grant . In the Lowlands the main roads were constructed under the See also:Turnpike Acts, the earliest of which was obtained in 1750 . Originally they were maintained by tolls, but this method, after several counties had obtained separate acts for its abolition, was superseded in 1883 by the act of 1878 . Canals.—There are four canals in Scotland, the Caledonian, the Crinan, the Forth and Clyde and the Union, of which the Caledonian and Crinan are See also:national property (see CALEDONIAN See also:CANAL) . The Forth and Clyde See also:Navigation runs from See also:Bowling on the Clyde, through the north-western part of Glasgow and through See also:Kirkintilloch and See also:Falkirk to See also:Grangemouth on the Forth, a distance of 35 M . There is also a See also:branch, 24 M. long, from Stockingfield to See also:Port Dundas in the city of Glasgow, which is continued for the distance of i m. to form a junction with the Monkland canal . This last has a length of 124 m., and runs from the north-east of Glasgow through Coatbridge to Woodhall in the parish of Old Monkland . It was begun in 1761 and opened for traffic in 1792 . The Forth and Clyde canal was authorized in 1767 and opened from sea to sea in 1790 . In 1846 its proprietors bought the Monkland canal, and in 1867 the combined undertaking passed into the hands of the Caledonian Railway Company . The Union canal, 312 M. long, starts from Port Downie, on the Forth and Clyde canal near Falkirk, and runs to Port Hopetoun in Edinburgh . Begun in ;818 it was completed in 1822, and in 1849 was vested in the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway Company, which in turn was absorbed by the North British Railway Company in 1865 . The Forth and Clyde canal has a revenue of about £120,000 a year, including receipts from the docks at Grangemouth, and the expenditure on management and maintenance is about £40,000 . The Union canal earns between £2000 and £3000, and its expenditure is but little less than its revenue . Three other canals formerly existed in Scotland . The Aberdeen canal, 184 m. long, See also:running up the See also:Don valley from Aberdeen to See also:Inverurie was opened in 1807, but did not prove profitable and was ultimately sold to the Great North of Scotland Railway Company, by which it was abandoned . The Glasgow, Paisley and See also:Johnstone canal, 11 m. long, was opened in 1811 and was bought in 1869 by the Glasgow and South-Western railway, which in 1881 obtained statutory powers to abandon it as a canal and use its site, so far as necessary, for a railway line . The Forth and See also:Cart Junction canal was only half a mile long . It ran from the Forth and Clyde canal to the Clyde, opposite the river Cart, and was intended to allow vessels to pass See also:direct from the east coast up that river to Paisley . The Caledonian railway, which acquired it together with the Forth and Clyde canal in 1867,- obtained powers to abandon it in 1893 . Railways.—The first railway in Scotland for which an act of parliament was obtained was that between Kilmarnock and Troon (94 m.), opened in 1812, and worked by horses . A similar railway, of which the chief source of profit was the passenger traffic, was opened between Edinburgh and See also:Dalkeith in 1831, branches being afterwards extended to Leith and See also:Mussel-burgh . By 184o the length of the railway lines for which bills were passed was 1914 m., the capital being £3,122,133 . The chief companies are the Caledonian, formed in 1845; the North British, of the same date; the Glasgow and South-Western, formed by amalgamation in 1850; the Highland, formed by amalgamation in 1865; and the Great North of Scotland, 1846 . Table XIII. shows the advance in mileage, goods and passenger traffic and receipts, from both sources, since 1857 . Year . Mileage . Passengers . Passenger Goods Total . Traffic Traffic Receipts . Receipts .
1857 1243 14,733,503 £916,697 £1,584.78
!
£2,501,478
.
1874 2700 38,220,892 2,350,593 3,884,424 6,235,017
1884 2999 54,305,074 2,931,737 4,426,023 7,357,760
1888 3097 68,413,349 3,163,195 4,564,627 7,727,822
1900 3485 122,201,102 4,715,592 6,431,693 11,147,285
1905 3804 I15,580,000 5,014,452 6,803,286 11,817,738
The total capital of all the Scots companies in 1888 was £114,120,11 by 1910 it exceeded £185,000,000
.
Since the passing of the Light Railways Act 1896, the Board of Trade has sanctioned several light railways
.
By 1910 the total railway mileage was 3844
.
See also:Mining Industry.—Coal and See also:iron, generally found in convenient proximity to each other, are the chief sources of the mineral See also:wealth of Scotland
.
The principal coalfields are Lanark-shire, which yields nearly half of the total output, Fifeshire, Ayrshire, See also:Stirlingshire and Midlothian, but coal is also See also:mined in the counties (usually reckoned as forming part of one or other of the main fields) of Linlithgow, Haddington, Dumbarton, Clackmannan, Kinross, Dumfries, Renfrew, Argyll and Peebles, while a small quantity is obtained from the Oolite at Brora in See also:Sutherlandshire
.
The earliest records concerning coalpits appear to be the charters granted, towards the end of the 12th century, to William Oldbridge of Carriden in Linlithgowshire, and in •1291 to the See also: In 1905 there were 492 coal and iron mines in operation, employing 109,939 hands (89,516 below ground and20,423 above) . The total output in that year amounted to 35,839,297 tons, valued at £10,369,433 . The total quantity worked up to the end of 1898 was 1,514,062 tons, the quantity then remaining to work being estimated at 4,634,785,000 tons . The quantity of coal exported in 1905 from the principal Scottish ports was 7,863,511 tons, and the quantity shipped coast-See also:wise to ports of the United See also:Kingdom amounts annually to about 22 million tons in addition . The rise of the iron industry See also:dates from the establishment of the Carron ironworks near Falkirk in 1760, but it was the introduction of railways that gave the See also:production of See also:pig-iron its greatest impetus . In 1796 the quantity produced was 18,640 tons, which had only doubled in See also:thirty-four years (37,500 tons in 1830) . In 184o this had grown to 241,000 tons, in 1845 to 475,000 tons and in 1865 to 1,164,000 tons, almost the height of its prosperity, for in 1905 the product of 101 blast furnaces only amounted to 1,375,125 tons, and in the See also:interval there were years when the output was below one million tons . More than one-third of the iron ote (that chiefly worked being Black See also:Band Ironstone) comes from mines which also yield coal . The iron-producing counties in the order of their output are Ayr, Lanark, Renfrew, Linlithgow, Dumbarton, Fife, Midlothian and Stirling, the first three being the most productive . In 1905 the quantity of ore raised was 832,388 tons, valued at £320,875 and yielding 249,716 tons of See also:metal . The imports of ore in that year amounted to 1,862,444 tons of the value of £1,420,379 . The oil shale industry is wholly modern and has attained to considerable magnitude since it was established (in 1851 and following years) . Linlithgowshire yields nearly three-fourths of the total output, Midlothian produces nearly one-fourth, a small quantity is obtained from See also:Lanarkshire, and there is an infinitesimal supply from Sutherland . The mineral is chiefly obtained from seams in the Calciferous Sandstone at the See also:base of the Carboniferous rocks . See also:Fire-clay is produced in Lanarkshire, which yields nearly half of the total output, and Ayrshire and, less extensively, in Stirlingshire, Fifeshire, See also:Renfrewshire, Midlothian and a few other shires . With the exception of the counties of Orkney, Shetland, Caithness, Sutherland and Inverness, See also:granite is quarried in every shire in Scotland, but the industry predominates in Aberdeenshire, and is of consider-able importance in See also:Kirkcudbrightshire; limestone is quarried in half of the counties, but especially in Midlothian and Fife; large quantities of paving-stones are exported from Caithness and Forfar-shire, and there are extensive See also:slate quarries at Ballachulish and other places in Argyllshire, which furnishes three-fourths of the total supply . Sandstone, of which the total production in 1905 was 1,142,135 tons valued at £320,761, is quarried in nearly every county, but the industry flourishes particularly in the shires of Lanark, Dumfries, Ayr and Forfar . Lead ore occurs at Wanlockhead in Dumfriesshire and See also:Leadhills in Lanarkshire . In 1905 there were produced 2774 tons of dressed lead ore, of the value of £25,823, yielding 2167 tons of lead in smelting and 11,409 oz. of See also:silver . See also:Gold has been found in the county of Ross and Cromarty . A small quantity of See also:zinc is mined in Dumfriesshire and of See also:barytes at Lochwinnoch in Renfrewshire . The See also:precious metals were once worked at See also:Abington in Lanarkshire and in the Ochils, and lead was mined at Tyndrum in Perthshire . In 1905 there were 66 mines apart from coal and iron, employing altogether 5329 hands, and 1127 quarries employing 7390 persons inside the quarries and 4797 persons outside, or 12,187 in all . Alumina is treated at works near Foyers in the shire of Inverness, where abundant water power enables See also:electricity to be generated cheaply . The Foyers See also:installation is the largest water-power plant in the United Kingdom . Iron and See also:Steel.—In 1901 the number of persons engaged in working of the raw material was 23,263, of whom 8258 were employed in steel smelting and founding, 7781 at blast furnaces in the manufacture of pig-iron, and 7224 at puddling furnaces and See also:rolling See also:mills . All the great iron foundries and See also:engineering works are situated in the Central Plain or Lowlands, in close proximity to the. See also:shipbuilding yards and coalfields, especially in the lower and part of the middle wards of Lanarkshire, in certain districts of Ayrshire and Renfrew-shire, at and near Dumbarton, in south Stirlingshire and in some parts of East and See also:Mid Lothian and Fife . In 1901 the number of persons employed in engineering and See also:machine-making—including 24,122 ironfounders, 24,944 blacksmiths, 26,567 fitters, turners and erectors, 9767 See also:boiler-makers and 18,618 undefined—amounted to 118,736 . In miscellaneous metal trades, embracing tinplate goods, See also:wire worke*s, makers of stoves, grates, ranges and fire-arms, makers of bolts, nuts, rivets, screws and staples, and those occupied in several subsidiary trades, the number of operatives in 1901 amounted to 13,200 . In the same year there were 7279 persons employed in the making of cycles, motor cars, railway coaches and waggons and carriages and other vehicles . In the whole group of industries connected with the working in metals and the manufacture of machinery, implements and conveyances the total. number of persons employed amounted in 19o1 to 205,830 . Manufactures . (a) See also:Wool and Worsted.—Although a company of wool weavers was incorporated by the town council of Edinburgh in 1475, the See also:cloth worn by the wealthier classes down to the beginning of the 17th century was of English or See also:French manufacture, the lower classes wearing " coarse cloth made at home," a See also:custom still prevalent in the remoter districts of the Highlands . In 16o1 seven Flemings were brought to Edinburgh to See also:teach the manufacture of serges and broadcloth, and eight years later a company of Flemings was established in the Canongate (Edinburgh) for the manufacture of cloth under the See also:protection of the king; but, notwithstanding also the establishment in 1681 of an English company for the manufacture of woollen fabrics near Haddington, the industry for long made little progress . In fact its importance dates from the introduction of machinery in the 19th century . The most important branch of the trade, that of tweeds, first began to attract attention shortly after 1830; though still having its principal seat in the district from which it takes its name, including See also:Galashiels, See also:Hawick, See also:Innerleithen and Selkirk, it has extended to other towns, especially Aberdeen, Elgin, Inverness, Stirling, See also:Bannock-See also:burn, Dumfries and Paisley . See also:Carpet manufacture has had its principal seat in Kilmarnock since 1817, but is also carried on in Aberdeen, Ayr, See also:Bannockburn, Glasgow, Paisley and else-where . Tartans are largely manufactured in Tillicoultry, Bannockburn and Kilmarnock, and shawls and plaids in several towns . Fingering and many other kinds of woollen yarns are manufactured at See also:Alloa, the headquarters of the industry . In 1901 the number of operatives in the woollen industry (including combers and sorters, spinners, weavers and workers in other processes) amounted to 24,906 . In 1850 the employed numbered 10,210 . (b) Flax, See also:Hemp and Jute.—The manufacture of cloth from flax is of very See also:ancient date, and towards the close of the 16th century Scottish See also:linen cloths were largely exported to foreign countries, as well as to England . Regulations in regard to the manufacture were passed in 1641 and 1661 . In a See also:petition presented to the privy council in 1684, complaining of the severe treatment of Scotsmen selling linen in England, it was stated that 12,000 persons were engaged in the manufacture . Through the intercession of the secretary of state with the king' these restrictions were removed . Further to encourage the trade it was enacted in 1686 that the bodies of all persons, excepting poor tenants and cotters, should be buried in plain linen only, spun and made within the kingdom . The act was renewed in 1693 and 1695, and in the former year another act was passed prohibiting the export of See also:lint and permitting its import free of duty . At the time of the Union the annual amount of linen cloth manufactured in Scotland is supposed to have been about 1,500,000 yards .
The Union gave a considerable impetus to the manufacture, as did also the establishment of the Board of Manufactures in 1727, which applied an annual sum of f2650 to its encouragement, and in 1729 established a See also:colony of French Protestants in Edinburgh, on the site of the present See also:Picardy Place, to teach the See also:spinning and See also:weaving of See also:cambric
.
From the 1st of November 1727 to the 1st of November 1728 the amount of linen cloth stamped wa= 2,183,978 yds., valued at £103,312, but for the year ending ,he 1st of November 1822, when the regulations as to the inspection and stamping of linen ceased, it had increased to 36,268,530 yds., valued at £1,396,296
.
The counties in which the manufacture is now most largely carried on are Forfar, Perth, Fife and Aberdeen, but Renfrew, Lanark, Edinburgh and Ayr are also extensively associated with it
.
Dundee is the principal seat of the coarser fabrics, Dunfermline of the table and other finer linens, while Paisley is widely known for its sewing threads
.
The allied industry of jute is the staple industry of Dundee
.
In 1890 the number employed in the linen industry was 34,222, which had declinedin 1901 to 23,570
.
In 1890 the operatives in the jute and hemp industry numbered 39,885, and in 1901 they were (including workers in See also:canvas, sacking, See also:sailcloth, rope, twine, mats, See also:cocoa fibre) 46,550
.
(c) See also:Cotton.—The first cotton See also: As compared with England, however, the manufacture has stagnated . The nurnber of hands employed in 185o was 34,325, in 1875 it was 35,652 and in 1901 (including bleachers, dyers, printers, calenderers, &c.) it was 34,057 . (d) See also:Silk and other Textiles.—The principal seats of the silk manufacture are Paisley and Glasgow . In 1885 the number employed amounted to 600 and in 1901 to 2424 . The weaving of See also:lace curtains has made considerable progress, in 1878 only 45 hands being employed against 2875 in 1901 . See also:Hosiery manufactures, a characteristic Border industry, with its chief seat at Hawick, employed 11,957 hands in 1901 . The total number of persons working in textile fabrics in 1901, exclusive of 21,849 drapers, mercers and other dealers, but including 43,040 employed in mixed or unspecified materials (hosiery, lace, carpets, rugs, See also:fancy goods, &c., besides a large number of " undefined " factory hands and weavers), amounted to 174,547 persons . (e) See also:Whisky and See also:Beer.—Scotland claims a distinctive manufacture in whisky . Though See also:distillation was originally introduced from England, by 1771 large quantities of See also:spirits were already being consigned to the English market . The legal manufacture of whisky was greatly checked in the earlier part of the 19th century by occasional advances in the duty, but after the reduction of 2S . 41d. per See also:proof See also:gallon in 1823—the duty amounted in 1904 to IIs. per proof gallon—the number of licensed distillers rapidly increased, to the discouragement of See also:smuggling and illicit distillation . In 1824 the number of gallons made amounted to 5,108,393; by 1855 this had more than doubled; in 1884 it was 20,164,962; in 1900 it reached 31,798,465; and in 1904 it had receded to 27,110,977 . More than four-fifths of the distilleries at work in the United Kingdom are situated in Scotland . The leading distilling counties are Argyll, Banff, Elgin, Inverness and Aberdeen, Perth and Ross and Cromarty, while the industry is found in seventeen other shires . In 1893-1894 the total See also:net duty received for home-made spirits amounted to £5,461,198 and in x903-1904 to £7,276,125 . The production has attained to coiossai dimensions . In 1893-1894 the quantity of proof gallons in See also:bond was 61,275,754, and in 1903-1904 it amounted to 121,397,951, the production having practically doubled itself within ten years . See also:Ale was a common beverage as early as the 12th century, one or more breweries being attached to every religious house and See also:barony . So general was its use even in the beginning of the 18th century that the threatened See also:imposition of a tax on See also:malt in 1725 provoked serious riots in Glasgow and clamour for See also:repeal of the Union; and sixty years afterwards Robert See also:Burns in certain poems voiced the popular sentiment concerning the " curst restrictions " proposed by the Excise on beer and whisky . Though ale has been superseded by whisky as the national beverage, See also:brewing is extensively carried on in Edinburgh, whose See also:ales are in high repute, Leith, Alloa and else-where . In 1885 the number of barrels of beer, duty-paid, amounted to 1,237,323; in 1893-1894 to 1,733,407; and in 1903-1904 to 1,877,978 . In 1893-1894 the duty (6s . ' 3d. the See also:barrel) yielded £473,311 and in 1903-1904 (7s . 9d. the barrel) £649,080 . After 1893-1894, when the number of brewers licensed to brew for See also:sale numbered 149, there was a steady fall to 117 Total . . 3601 522,222 3486 623,791 3297 937,084 3468 1,694,075 3084 2,237,462 3248 3,717,898 COMMERCE] in 1903-1904, alleged by the Inland Revenue Commissioners to be due to the disappearance of the small See also:brewer . The practice of private brewing exhibits a still greater decline-from 272 to 84 in the years named . Notwithstanding the enormous turnover and output and the large capital invested, neither distilling nor brewing gives employment to many hands, the figures for 1901 being 1330 maltsters, 2052 brewers and 197o distillers . (f) Miscelldneous.—See also:Paper, See also:stationery and See also:printing are industries in which Scotland has always occupied a foremost position . A paper mill was erected in 1675 at Dairy on the Water of Leith in which French operatives were employed to give 185o . 186o . 187o . 1884 . 1900 . 1905 . No . Tons . No . Tons . No . Tons . No . Tons . No . Tons . No . Tons . Sailing vessels 3432 491,395 3172 552,212 2715 727,942 2065 827,295 1104 709,430 918 578,340 See also:Steam vessels . 169 30,827 314 71,579 582 209,142 1403 866,78o 198o 1,528,032 2330 3,139,558 regarding the number and See also:tonnage of See also:shipping are, however, lacking till the 18th century . From two reports printed by the Scottish Burgh See also:Record Society in 1881, it appears that the number of vessels belonging to the principal ports—Leith, Dundee, Glasgow, Kirkcaldy and Montrose—in 1656 was 58, the tonnage being 3140, and that by 1692 they had increased to 97 of 5905 tons . These figures only represent a portion of the total shipping of the kingdom . At the time of the Union in 1707 the number of vessels was 215 of 14,485 tons . Table XIV. gives the figures of the registered tonnage in port in 185o and later specified years, which are interesting as showing how, TABLE XIV . Showing Registered Tonnage in Port in Specified Years . instruction, with the result, in the words of the proprietors, that " grey and See also:blue paper was produced much finer than ever was done before in the kingdom." Midlothian has never lost the lead then secured . The paper mills at Penicuik and elsewhere in the vale of the Esk and around Edinburgh are flourishing concerns, and the industry is also vigorously conducted near Aberdeen . Stationery is largely manufactured at Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh . In 19os the number of persons employed in the paper and stationery industries amounted to while sailing vessels declined during the half century to one-third of their number in 1850, steam vessels increased thirteenfold . It is true that the tonnage of the 918 sailing vessels of 1905 was considerably in excess of that of the 3432 sailing vessels of 1850, but even so it was a declining figure from a higher tonnage of the middle of the period . On the other hand, during fifty-five years the tonnage of steamers had grown to be a hundred times as large as it was in 1850 . Table XV. illustrates the development that took place in the shipping trade with foreign countries and British possessions, as well as the expansion of the See also:coasting trade, in 1855-19o5, certain years being taken as types . 19,602 . Ever since it was established by , TABLE XV.—Foreign and Colonial and Coastwise Trade: Tonnage of Vessels . Andrew Myllar and See also:Walter Chepman, early in the 16th century, the Edinburgh See also:press has been renowned for the beauty and excellence of its See also:typography, a large proportion of the books issued by London publishers emanating from the printing works of the Scottish capital . Printing is also extensively carried on in Glasgow and Aberdeen, and See also:Cupar once enjoyed consider-able repute for its press . The number of persons engaged in the production of books and other printed See also:matter (including lithographers, See also:copper, steel See also:plate and " See also:process " printers, bookbinders, publishers, booksellers and distributors) amounted in 1901 to 24,139 . The first See also:sugar refinery was erected in 1765 at Greenock, which, despite periodical vicissitudes, has remained the principal seat of the industry, which is also carried on at Leith, Glasgow and Dundee . The making of preserves and See also:confectionery flourishes in Dundee, Aberdeen, Paisley and Edinburgh . Kirkcaldy is the seat of the oil See also:floor-cloth and linoleum industries, the latter introduced in 1877 . The headquarters of the chemicals manufacture are situated in Glasgow and the vicinity, while See also:explosives are chiefly manufactured at Stevenston and elsewhere in Ayrshire, and at certain places on the Argyll coast . Among occupations providing employment for large numbers were trades in connexion with building and works of construction (136,639 persons in 1901), and See also:furniture and See also:timber (39,000), while the See also:conveyance of passengers, parcels and messages employed 163,102 (railway, 43,037; roads, S3,813; sea, rivers and canals, 20,451; docks, harbours and lighthouses, 10,659; and storage, porterage and messages, 35,142) . Commerce and Shipping.—That Scotland had a considerable trade with foreign countries at a very early period may be inferred from the importation of rich dresses by See also:Malcolm III . (d . 1093), and the enjoyment of See also:Oriental luxuries by Alexander I . (d . 1124) . His successor, David I., receives the special praise of See also:Fordun for enriching " the ports of his kingdom with foreign merchandise." In the 13th century the Scots had acquired a considerable celebrity in shipbuilding; and a powerful French See also:baron had a See also:ship specially built at Inverness in 1249 to convey him and his vassals to the See also:Holy Land . The principal shipowners at this period were the clergy, who embarked the wealth of their religious houses in commercial enterprises . Definite statements Year . Coastwise . Colonial and Foreign . Total . Entered . Cleared . Entered . Cleared . Entered . Cleared . 1855 1,963,552 2,057,936 668,078 . 840,150 2,631,630 2,898,086 188o 6,628,853 5,691,136 2,700,915 3,001,897 9,329,768 8,693,033 1889 7,188,763 6,998,516 3,931,010 4,412,607 11,119,773 11,411,123 1898 9,256,233 8,937,481 5,510,927 6,296,555 14,767,160 15,234,036 1900 7,213,574 6,791,959 5,657,200 6,602,545 12,870,774 113~,394,504 1905 9,928,674 9,500,160 6,268,745 7,478,579 16,197,419 16,978,739 Table XVI. exhibits the growth of the foreign and colonial trade at specified dates since 1755, showing how it advanced by leaps and bounds during the latter part of the 19th century . Though the value of imports into Scotland is less than one-See also:eleventh of that into England, this does not represent the due proportion of foreign wares used and since 1755 . Year . Imports . Exports . Year . Imports . Exports . 1755 464,411 535,576 1874 31,012,750 17,912,932 1790 1,688,337 1,235,405 188o 34,997,652 18,243,078 1795 1,268,520 976,791 1884 30,600,258 20,322,355 1800 2,212,790 2,340,069 1889 36,771,016 22,310,006 1815 3,447,853 6,997,709 1898 36,224,982 23,643,143 1825 4,994,304 5,842,296 1900 38,691,245 32,166,561 1851 8,921,108 5,o16,116 1903 40,396,280 32,301,198 consumed in Scotland, for the obvious See also:reason that large quantities of goods are brought into the country by See also:rail, nearly all the See also:tea, for example, consumed in Great Britain being imported into London, while several ports have almost a See also:monopoly of certain other imports . Foreign and colonial merchandise transhipped was valued at £989,289 in 1889 and at £746,246 in 1903 . The customs revenue rose from £1,965,080 in 1894 to £3,399,141 in 1903 . Judged by the combined value of their imports and exports the chief ports are as shown in the first section of Table XVII . Their status is modified by the movements of shipping, and for purposes of comparison the entrance and clearance tonnage of the trade with British colonies and foreign countries and of the coastwise traffic are exhibited in the second and third sections of the same table . The favourable position occupied by Greenock in the third section is due to its preponderating share of the traffic with the west coast and the islands . Its share of the Irish and coasting trade likewise accounts for the position of Ardrossan in the same section . It should be added that on the figures of import and export value in 1909, Aberdeen had changed places with Methil, and Burntislaud with Granton . The figure for Glasgow in that year was £41,238,867 . Shipbuilding.—Many of the most important improvements in the construction of See also:ships, especially steam vessels, are due to the enterprise and skill of the Clyde shipbuilders, who, from the time of Robert See also:Napier of Shandon (1791-1876), who built and engined the first steamers for the See also:Cunard Company, formed in 184o, have enjoyed an unrivalled reputation for the construction of See also:leviathan liners, both as regards See also:mechanical appliances and the beauty and convenience of the See also:internal arrangements . The principal Clyde yards are situated in the Glasgow district (Govan, Partick, See also:Fairfield, See also:Clydebank, Renfrew), Dumbarton, Port Glasgow and Greenock .
At several of the ports on the lower firth, as at Ardrossan and Fairlie, famous for its yachts, the industry is also carried on
.
On the east coast the leading yards are at Leith, Kirkcaldy, Grangemouth, Dundee, Peterhead and Aberdeen, which, in the days of sailing ships, was renowned for its clippers built for the tea trade
.
There are yards also at Inverness
.
Postal Service.—Towards the end of the 16th century the practice arose of regular communication by See also:letter between the magistrates of the larger towns and the seat of government in Edinburgh
.
After the See also:accession of See also: See also:Religion.—The bulk of the population is Presbyterian, this form of Church government having generally obtained, in spite of persecution and other vicissitudes, since the Reformation . It is accepted equally by the Established Church, the United Free, the Free and other-smaller Presbyterian bodies, the principal, point distinguishing the first-named from the rest being that it accepts the headship of the See also:sovereign . The Episcopal Church of Scotland, which is in communion with the Church of England, claims to represent the ancient Catholic Church of the country . See SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF; also FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND; UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH; See also:PRESBYTERIANISM; and SCOT-LAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF . Parliamentary Government.—By the Act of Union in 1707 Scotland ceased to have a separate parliament, and its government was assimilated to that of England . In the parliament of Great Britain its See also:representation was fixed at sixteen peers elected in Holyrood See also:Palace by the peers of Scotland at each new parliament in the House of Lords, and at See also:forty-five members in the House of tommons, the counties returning thirty and the burghs fifteen . The power of the sovereign to create new Scottish peerages lapsed at the Union, and consequently their number is a diminishing quantity . By the Reform Act of -1832 the number of Scottish representatives in the See also:Commons was raised to fifty-three, the counties under a slightly altered arrangement returning thirty members as before, and the burghs, reinforced by the erection of various towns into parliamentary burghs, twenty-three; the second Reform Act (1867) increased the number to sixty, the universities obtaining representation by two members, while two additional members were assigned to the counties and three to the burghs; by the Redistribution of Seats Act in 1885 an addition of seven members was made to the representation of the counties and five to that of the burghs, the total representation being raised to seventy-two . The management of Scottish business in parliament has since 1885 been under the charge of the secretary for Scotland .l Law.—At the Union Scotland retained its old system of law and legal administration, a system modelled on that of See also:France; but since the Union the See also:laws of England and Scotland have been on many points assimilated, the criminal law of the two countries being now practically identical, although the methods of See also:procedure are in many respects different . The Court of Session, as the supreme court in civil causes is called, which is held at Edinburgh, dates from 1532, and was formed on the model of the See also:parlement of See also:Paris . Since the Union it has undergone certain modifications . It consists of thirteen See also:judges, acting in an Inner and an See also:Outer House . The Inner House has two divisions, with four judges each, the first being presided over by the lord president of the whole court, and the second by the lord See also:justice clerk . In the Outer House five judges, called lords ordinary, sit in separate courts . Appeals may be made from the lords ordinary to either of the divisions of the Inner House, and, if the occasion demands, the See also:opinion of all the judges of the Court of Session may be called for; but whether this be done or not the decision is regarded as a decision of the Court of Session . Appeals may be made from the Court of Session to the House of Lords . The lord justice general (lord president), the lord justice clerk and the other judges of the Court of Session form the High Court of See also:justiciary, instituted in 1672, for criminal cases, which sits at Edinburgh for the trial of cases from the three Lothians and of cases referred from the See also:circuit courts . The latter meet for the south at Jedburgh, Dumfries and Ayr; for the west at Glasgow, See also:Inveraray and Stirling; and for the north at Perth, Aberdeen, Dundee and Inverness . The law agents who undertake cases to be decided before the supreme courts are either solicitors before the supreme courts (S.S.C.) or writers to the signet (W.S.), the latter of whom possess certain special privileges . The lawyer authorized to plead before the supreme courts is termed an See also:advocate . The principal law officer of the See also:crown is the lord advocate, who is assisted by the See also:solicitor-general and by See also:advocates-depute . The See also:practical administration of the law in a county is under the control of the See also:sheriff-depute, who combines with his judicial duties certain administrative functions . The office, which once implied a much less restricted authority than at present, is as old as the reign of Alexander I . (d . 1124), when the greater part of the kingdom was divided into twenty-five sheriffdoms . In the latter part of the 13th century they numbered thirty-four, but now there are only fifteen sheriffs in all, who, excepting the sheriff for Lanark-shire, need not reside in the counties to which they are appointed and are not prohibited from private practice . They are assisted by sheriffs-substitute upon whom the bulk of the work falls, who must be residential and are debarred from private practice . At one time the functions of the sheriff-principal were confined to one county, but by an act passed in 1855 it was arranged that as sheriffdoms fell vacant certain counties should be grouped under the control of one sheriff-principal . Thus Aberdeen, Kincardine and Banff form one group, and the three Lothians with Peebles another . The public prosecutor for counties is the See also:procurator-fiscal, who takes the 1 A separate secretary of state for Scotland was in existence after the Union, but this office was abolished in 1746 . From 1782 to 1885 the secretary of state for the home department was responsible for the conduct of Scottish business, being advised in these matters by the lord advocate . The secretary for Scotland is not one of the principal secretaries of state . Imports Colonial Coastwise and Port . Order. and Order . Foreign Order . Tonnage Exports . Tonnage In and Out . In and Out . Glasgow . . I 38,291,762 I 4,472,071 I 4,257,957 Leith 2 17,975,978 2 2,210,015 4 1,410,160 Grangemouth . 3 6,273,317 4 1,425,978 6 859,177 Dundee . . 4 5,657,583 7 32o,io3 7 807,159 Greenock . . 5 2,046,457 10 202,336 2 3,348,928 Methil . . . 6 1,127,931 3 1,716,355 8 542,244 Aberdeen . . 7 1,035,233 8 217,410 3 1,613,966 Granton 8 933,48o 9 202,901 10 230,458 Burntisland 9 846,74I 5 1,305,945 9 294,261 Ardrossan . . io 651,124 6 326,356 5 1,094,439 initiative in regard to suspected cases of sudden death, although in this respect the law of Scotland is less strict than that of England . Justices of the peace, who are unpaid and require no special qualification, but as they are recommended by the lord-See also:lieutenant, are generally persons of position in the county, once exercised a wider subordinate See also:jurisdiction than now devolves upon them, their chief administrative See also:function being to act along with certain members of the county councils, as the licensing authority for public-houses in the county and in police burghs, and as a court of See also:appeal from the decisions of the bailies in royal and parliamentary burghs . Local Government.—The largest administrative unit is that of the county, but the areas of counties may be adapted to meet various public or political requirements . They may be altered for the purposes of the registrar-general, and for police purposes part of the area of one county may be brought into the area of another . For parliamentary purposes some counties have been united, as Clackmannan and Kinross, Elgin and Nairn, Orkney and Shetland, and Peebles and Selkirk, and others divided, as Aberdeen, Ayr, Lanark, Perth and Renfrew, while others retain in certain respects their old subdivision, Lanarkshire for assessment purposes being still partitioned into the upper, middle and lower wards . Originally the counties were synonymous either with sheriffdoms or stewartries . Stewartries ceased with the abolition of hereditary jurisdictions in 1748, though Kirkcudbrightshire still bears the designation . The counties are thirty-three in number, Ross and Cromarty constituting one, while Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Dundee are each a county of a city . The highest county dignitary is the lord-lieutenant, the office dating from 1782 . Nominated by the crown, he holds office See also:aut vitam aut culpam, represents the crown in military matters, recommends for commissions of the peace, holds the position of high sheriff, and is a member of the standing joint committee . The office, however, is little more than honorary . In olden times there were three classes of burgh . Those created by See also:charter directly from the crown were styled royal burghs: they number seventy in all, of which no fewer than seventeen belong to Fifeshire . Those holding their charters from a feudal superior and not from the crown were called burghs of regality, their magistrates and council being usually appointed by the overlord or his representative . Being small and unimportant, these burghs were not affected by the act of 1833, but in 1892 were required to adopt the constitution of police burghs . Towns that received their charters from bishops were burghs of barony, their magistrates and council being appointed by the superior . When the See also:bishop's jurisdiction was abolished, the burghs as a rule assumed the position of royal burghs . Police burghs are wholly modern, dating from the middle of the 19th century . They were called into existence by the rapid growth of certain districts caused by the development of the coal and iron fields . The principle on which they are established may be briefly stated thus: towns with a minimum population of 800 can, on a See also:poll demanded by the ratepayers showing a majority in favour of it, acquire the status of a police burgh subject to representations from neighbouring burghs, a proviso devised to check the growth of " parasitic " burghs in the immediate vicinity of a great centre of population and industry, enjoying all the public improvements initiated by their powerful See also:neighbour and yet contributing nothing towards the cost and upkeep of them . It should be noted that, according to Scottish usage, " police " includes drainage, the suppression of nuisances, paving, See also:lighting and cleansing, in addition to the provision of a constabulary force, and that in point of fact, paradoxical as it appears, the bulk of the police burghs do not See also:manage their police . Royal burghs derive part of their income from ancient corporate property known as " the Common Good " and consisting mostly of land and houses . It is devoted to See also:objects for which the rates are not applicable . Glasgow, for example, might found a chair in the University from the Common Good but not from the rates, and Edinburgh maintains from the same source the city See also:observatory and defrays part of the cost of the time-See also:gun . Only Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dundee, Greenock, Aberdeen and Paisley have private and local acts, conferring powers exceeding the general law, to See also:deal with, e.g. overcrowding, the See also:obnoxious display of advertisements, the compulsory acquisition of land for See also:gas, water or electric-power enterprises, all the other burghs being governed by Public General Acts . This is in marked contrast with the practice in England, where almost every large See also:borough has its own private act . The corporation of the burghs consists of the See also:provost (or lord provost, in the cases of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Dundee), bailies and councillors, with certain permanent officials, of whom the town clerk is the most important . The course of reform may now be concisely summarized . In 1833 Scottish burghs were for the first time entitled to be governed by directly-elected bodies, and at various times since that date See also:fuller powers of legal self-government were granted in different directions . In 1845 parochial boards were created for relief of the poor, their powers being afterwards extended to deal with the statutes concerning See also:burial-grounds, the See also:registration of births, deaths and marriages, See also:vaccination, public See also:health, public See also:libraries and other matters . In 1872 school boards were set up throughout the country; county councils followed in 1889 and parish councils in 1894 . These reforms profoundly modified and in some cases abolished older organizations which had grown inadequate to modern wants . The Commissioners of Supply, originally appointed to apportion and collect the nationalrevenue and afterwards entrusted with the regulation of the land tax, the control of the county police, the raising of the See also:militia, and the levying of rates for county expenditure, were practically superseded by the county councils, which are also the local authority under the Contagious Diseases (Animals) and the Public Health Acts in all parishes (burghs and police burghs excepted), perform the administrative duties formerly entrusted to the justices of the peace, and may also enforce the Rivers Pollution Act each within its own jurisdiction . The county councils are strengthened by certain special committees, such as the secondary education committee, whose duties have already been defined, and the standing joint committee—one half appointed by the county council, the other half by the Commissioners of Supply—which manages the county police and whose consent in See also:writing must be obtained before the county council can undertake any work involving capital outlay . All but the smallest counties are subdivided into districts, and the Road Acts and Public Health Acts are administered in these areas by district committees, composed of members of the county council for the district and one representative of each parish council within the area . The act of 1894, as we have seen, not only established the Local Government Board, consisting of the secretary for Scotland, the solicitor-general, the under-secretary and three appointed members—a See also:vice-president, a lawyer and a medical officer of public health—but also replaced the parochial boards by parish councils, empowered to deal among other things with poor relief, lunacy, vaccination, libraries, See also:baths, recreation grounds, disused churchyards, rights of way, parochial endowments, and the formation of special lighting and scavenging districts . (J . A .
M.)
Scotland, to political observers of the middle of the 16th century, seemed destined by nature to form one homogeneous kingdom with England
.
The outward frontiers of both were the sea; no difficult physical barriers divided the two territories; the majority of Scots spoke an intelligible form of English, differing from northern English more in spelling and See also:pronunciation than in See also:idiom and vocabulary; and after the Reformation the State religion in both countries was See also:Protestant
.
Yet, in spite of these causes making for union, and in spite of the manifest advantages of union, it was by a See also:mere dynastic See also:accident that, in the defect of nearer heirs to the English throne, the crowns of both kingdoms were worn by James VI
.
(1603), while more than a century of unrest and See also:war had to elapse before the union of England and Scotland into one kingdom in 1707
.
Even later there See also:broke forth civil wars that, apart from dynastic sentiment, had no political aim except " to break the Union." Thus for seven hundred years the division of the isle of Britain was a See also:constant cause of weakness and public distress
.
Nothing did more to bring the two peoples together than religion, after the Reformation, yet, by an unhappy turn of affairs, and mainly thanks to one man, John Knox, few causes were more potent than religious See also:differences in delaying that complete union which nature herself seemed to See also:desire
.
The historical causes which kept the nations separate were mainly racial, though, from a very early period, the majority of the people of Scotland were, if not purely English by See also:blood, anglicized in See also:language and, to a great extent, See also:nco Hjona. in institutions
.
All questions of See also:race are dim, for such a thing as a See also:European people of pure unmixed blood is probably unknown in experience
.
In A.D
.
78–82 See also: There are also traces of the persistence of descent in the female line, especially in the case of the Pictish royal See also:family, but such survivals of See also:savage institutions, or such a modification of male descent for the purpose of ensuring the purity of the royal blood, yield no See also:firm ground for a decision as to whether the Picts were " See also:Aryans " or " non-Aryans." It is unnecessary here to discuss the Pictish problem (see See also:CELT) . That their rivals, the Scots, were a Gaelic-speaking people is certain . That the Picts were Teutons (See also:Pinkerton) is no longer believed . That they were non-See also:Aryan, the theory of Sir John Rhys, seems improbable; for the non-English place-names of Scotland are either Gaelic or Brythonic (more or less Welsh), and the names of Pictish See also:kings are either common to Gaelic and Welsh (or Cymric, or Brythonic), or are Welsh in their See also:phonetics . Mr See also:Skene held that the Picts were a Gaelic-speaking people, but the weight of philological authority is with Mr Whitley See also:Stokes, who says that Pictish phonetics, "so far as we can ascertain them, resemble those of Welsh rather than of Irish" (see Zimmer, Das Mutterrecht der Pik/en; Rhys, Royal Commission's See also:Report on Land in Wales, Celtic Britain, Rhind Lectures; Skene's Celtic Scotland; J . G . Frazer, Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship, p . 247; Macbain's edition, 1902, of Skene's Highlanders of Scotland) . The Roman occupation has left not many material relics in Scotland, and See also:save for letting a glimmer of See also:Christianity into the south-west, did nothing which permanently affected the institutions of the partially subjugated peoples . In A.D . 81—82 Agricola garrisoned the Roman frontier between Forth and Clyde, and in 84 he fought and won a great See also:battle farther north, probably on the line of the Tay . His enemies were men of the early iron age, and used the See also:chariot in war . They fought with courage, but were no match for Roman discipline; it was, however, impossible to follow them into their mountain fortresses, nor were the difficulties of pursuit 'thoroughly overcome till after the battle of See also:Culloden in 1746 . The most important Roman stations which have hitherto been excavated are those of Birrenswark, on the north side of Solway Firth; Ardoch, near the historical battlefield of See also:Sheriffmuir (1715); and New-See also:stead, a site first occupied by Agricola, under the Eildon hills . Roman roads extended, with camps, as far as the Moray Firth . It is not till A.D . 300 that we read of " the Caledonians and other Picts "; in the 4th century they frequently harried the See also:Romans up to the See also:wall of See also:Hadrian, between See also:Tyne and Solway . About the end of the century the southern Picts of Galloway, and tribes farther north, were partially converted by St See also:Ninian, from the candida casa of Whithern . The Scots, from Ireland, also now come into view, the name of Scotland being derived from that of a people really Irish in origin, who spoke a Gaelic (see CELTIC) akin to that of the Caledonians, and were in a similar stage of higher barbarism . The Scots made raids, but, as yet, no national settlement . The withdrawal of the Romans from Britain (410) left the northern part of the island as a prey to be fought for by warlike tribes, of whom the most notable were the Picts in the north, the Scots or Dalriads from Ireland in the west (Argyll), the Cymric or Welsh peoples in the south-west and between Forth and Tay, and the See also:Teutonic invaders, Angles or English, in the south-east . If the Picts had been able to win and hold Scotland as far south as the historic border, the fortunes of the country would probably have been more or less like those of Ireland . After the See also:Norman See also:Conquest, England would have subjugated the Celts and held Scotland by a See also:tenure less precarious and disputed than they possessed in the western island . Scotland would have been, at most, a larger Wales . But in the struggle for existence it chanced that the early English invaders secured a kingdom, See also:Bernicia, which stretched from the See also:Humber into Lothian, or farther north, as the See also:fortune of battle might at various times determine; and thus, from the centre to the south-east of what is now Scotland, the people had come to be anglicized in speech before the Norman Conquest, though Gaelic survived much later in Galloway . The English domain comprised, roughly speaking, the modern counties of See also:Selkirkshire, Peebles-shire, See also:Berwickshire, See also:Roxburghshire and most of the Lothians, while south of Tweed it contained See also:Northumberland, See also:Durham and See also:Yorkshire to the Humber . In later days the Celtic kings of northern and western Scotland succeeded in holding, on vague conditions of See also:homage to the English crown, the English-speaking region of historic Scotland . That region was the most fertile, had the best husbandry, and possessed the most civilized population, a people essentially English in language and institutions, but indomitably attached to the Celtic dynasties of the westernand northern part of the' island . It was the English-speaking south-east part of Scotland, gradually extended so as to comprise Fife and the south-west (Lanarkshire, Dumfriesshire, Stirling-shire, See also:Dumbartonshire, Ayrshire and Renfrewshire), which learned to adopt the ideas of western Europe in matters political, municipal and ecclesiastical, while it never would submit to the domination of the English crown . This English See also:element, in a nation ruled by a Celtic See also:dynasty, prevented Scotland from becoming, like Wales, a See also:province of England . On the west of the northern part of the English kingdom of Bernicia, severed from that by the See also:Forest of See also:Ettrick, and perhaps by the mysterious work of which traces remain in the " Catrail," was the Brython or Welsh kingdom of See also:Strathclyde, which then included the territory and population, later anglicized, of Renfrew-shire, Ayrshire, Lanarkshire, Dumfriesshire, and, south of the historic border, See also:Cumberland and Westmoreland to the See also:Derwent . Strathclyde was essentially Welsh, and it may be noted that this region, centuries later, was the centre of the recalcitrant See also:Covenanters, a people enthusiastically religious in their own way . Later, this region was the hotbed or " revivals " and the See also:cradle of Irvingism . Whether the influence of Cymric blood may be traced in these characteristics is a dubious question . While southern Scotland was thus English and Cymric, the north, from Cape Wrath to See also:Lochaber, in the west, and to the Firth of Tay, on the east, was Pictland; and the See also:vernacular spoken there was the Gaelic . The west, south of Lochaber to the Mull of Kintyre, with the isles of Bute, See also:Islay, 'See also:Arran and See also:Jura, was the See also:realm of the Dalriadic kings, Scots from Ireland (503): here, too, Gaelic was spoken, as among the " Southern Picts " of the kingdom of Galloway . Such, roughly speaking, were the divisions of the country which arose as results of the obscure wars of the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries . As regards Christianity in these regions, Protestantism, Presbyterianism and patriotism find here a battle-ground . The See also:mission of St Ninian (397) was that of a native of the Roman province of Britain, and the church which See also:aids. he founded would bear the same relation to Rome as did the church in Britain . There are material relics of his church, bearing the See also:Christian See also:monogram, and there are stones with Latin epitaphs; these objects are wholly unlike the Irish crosses and inscriptions of the Gaelic church . If See also:Bede is right in saying that Ninian was trained in Rome, then the early Christianity of Scotland was Roman . In 431 the contemporary Chronica of Prosper of See also:Aquitaine record that See also:Palladius was ordained by Pope See also:Celestine as the first bishop " to the believing Scots," that is, to the Irish . If there were " believing Scots " in Ireland before the first bishop was ordained, their ecclesiastical constitution cannot have been episcopal . Fordun, in the 14th century, supposed that the clergy, before Palladius, were presbyters or monks . As See also:Hector See also:Boece, " that See also:pillar of falsehood," dubbed these presbyters " See also:Culdees," " the pure Culdee," a blameless presbyterian, almost prehistoric, has been claimed as the ancestor of Scottish presbyterianism; and See also:episcopacy has been regarded as a deplorable innovation . The Irish church has paid more reverence to St Patricius than to Palladius (373—463), and the church of St Patricius, himself a figure as important as obscure, certainly abounded in bishops; according to Angus the Culdee there were 1071, but these cannot have been bishops with territorial See also:sees, and the heads of monasteries were more potent personages . The Dalriadic settlers in Argyll and the Isles, the (Irish) Scots, were Christians in the Irish manner . Their defeat by the Picts, in 56o, induced the Irish St See also:Columba to endeavour to convert the conquering Picts . In 563—565 he founded his mission and monastery in the isle of See also:Iona, and journeying to Inverness he converted the king of the Picts . About the same date (573), the king of Cymric Strathclyde summoned, from See also:exile in Wales, St See also:Kentigern, the See also:patron See also:saint of Glasgow, who restored a Christianity almost or quite submerged in paganism, Celtic and English . The See also:pagan English of See also:Deira (603) routed under YEthelfrith the Christian Scots of Argyll between See also:Liddesdale and North Tyne; and pagan English for more than a century held unopposed the region from Forth to Humber . In 617 lEthelfrith fell in battle with the English of East Anglia, and his sons, Eanf rid and See also:Oswald, fled to the North . Eanfrid, by his marriage with a Pictish princess, became the See also:father of the Pictish king Talorcan, while Oswald was baptized into the See also:Columban church at Iona . In a season of war and turmoil Oswald won the crown of the north-east English kingdom, stretching to the Forth, with its capital at Eadwinsburgh ( ? Edinburgh, a dubious See also:etymology), and in that kingdom St See also:Aidan, from Iona, erected the Columban churches under the auspices of Oswald, whose See also:brother Oswin dominated Strathclyde and Pictland up to the Grampians; the English element, for the time, extending itself and anglicizing more and more of the Scotland that was to be . Thus the Dalriadic Scots had handed on the See also:gift of Irish Christianity, with such literature as accompanied it in the shape of Latin, and See also:reading and writing, to the northern English from Forth to Humber . The ecclesiastical constitution thus introduced was one of missionary monastic stations, settled in fortified villages . The Celtic church, unluckily, differed from the Roman on the question of the method of calculating the date of See also:Easter, the form of the See also:tonsure, and other usages, one of them apparently See also:relating to a detail in the celebration of the Holy Communion . From a letter to Pope See also:Boniface IV. of an Irish saint Columbanus, who led twelve Irish monks into See also:Gaul and See also:Burgundy, the Celtic church appears to have denied that the papal jurisdiction extended beyond the limits of the Roman See also:empire . Consequently Rome would have no jurisdiction in the affairs of the Irish church established in Scotland and the north of England . The results would be the severance of these regions from the main current of western ecclesiastical ideas . Conceivably these sentiments of Columbanus never wholly died out in the Scottish kingdom of later history, whose kings were always See also:apt to treat Rome in a See also:cavalier manner, laughing at interdicts and excommunications . A papal See also:legate, in See also:Bruce's time, was no more safe, if his errand was undesirable, than under John Knox, when See also:Mary See also:Stuart wore the crown . " All the world errs, Rome and See also:Jerusalem err, only the Scoti and the Britones are in the right " is quoted as the opinion of the Scoti and Britones in 634 . It appears that Scotland was naturally Protestant against Rome as soon as she was Christian . Meanwhile Rome was too strong, and in 664, in a See also:synod held at See also:Whitby, St See also:Wilfrid procured the See also:acceptance of Roman as against Celtic See also:doctrine in the questions then at issue . The English Christians overcame the Celtic divines of Iona, and in 710 even in Pictland they came into the customs of western Christianity . The church of the Celtic tribe thus yielded to the church of the Roman empire . There followed an age of war in which the northern English were routed at Nectan's mere, in See also:Forfarshire, and driven south of Forth . In the quarrels of Picts and of Scots of Argyll, the Pictish king, Angus MacFergus (ob . 761), was victorious while in his See also:prime, and then consolidated Pictland; but (802—839) the Scandinavian sea-rovers began to hold large territories in Scotland,weakened the Picts, and made easy their conquest by See also:Kenneth See also:MacAlpine of Kintyre, the king of the Dalriad Scots of Argyll . In 86o this Scot became king of the Picts . Old legends represent him as having exterminated the Picts to the last man; and the Picts become, in popular tradition, a mythical folk, hardly human, to whom great feats, including the building of Glasgow See also:cathedral, are attributed, as the walls of See also:Tiryns and See also:Mycenae in See also:Greece were traditionally assigned to the energy of the See also:Cyclopes . In 1814 Sir Walter See also:Scott met a dwarfish traveller in the Orkneys, whom the natives regarded as a "Pecht" or Pict . There was, of course, in fact, no extermination of the Picts, there was merely a change of dynasty, and See also:alliance between Picts and Scots, and that change was probably made in accordance with Pictish customs of succession . Kenneth MacAlpine, though son of a Scottish father, was probably,, though not certainly, a Pict on the See also:mother's side, and in Pictland the crown was inherited in the female line . The consequence was that what had been Pictland came to be styled Scotland . The king of See also:Alban was a Scot in the paternal line . His conquest was not achieved at a See also:blow, but his language, Gaelic, prevailed . Hence-forth, despite the incursions of the Scandinavians, and partly because of them, the ecclesiastical and royal centres of life are moved to the south and the east, though the king of Alban (Ardrigh) is not always See also:master of his Ri, or subordinate princes of the seven provinces (Mortuath) . His position is rather that of an overlord, or See also:Bretwalda, like See also:Agamemnon's among the Achaean anakies . He See also:allies himself with Cymric Strathclyde, and by constant raids, and thanks to English weakness caused by Danish invasions, he extends his power over English Lothian . A marriage of the daughter of Kenneth MacAlpine with the Welsh See also:prince of Strathclyde gives Scotland a footing in that region; in See also:short, Scotland slowly advances towards and even across the historic border . Through this contact with and actual tenure of English lands arose the various so-called " submissions " of kings of Scotland to the English crown . Thus (924) the English See also:Chronicle con. asserts that See also:Constantine, king of Scotland, " See also:chose nexions See also:Edward King to father and lord." If is impossible with here to analyse the disputes as to whether, in See also:Freeman's ~ngtand. words, " from this time to the 14th century " (he means, to Bannockburn) " the vassalage of Scotland was an essential part of the public law of the Isle of Britain." In fact this vassalage was claimed at intervals by the English kings, and was admitted by Scottish kings for their lands in England; but as regards Scotland, was resisted in arms whenever opportunity arose . Each submission " held not long," and the practical result was that (945) Malcolm acquired northern Strathclyde, " Cumberland, Galloway (?) and other districts," while another Malcolm (ror8) took Lothian, the northern part of See also:Northumbria, after winning a great battle at Carham on the Tweed . The Celts, Scoto-Picts, of Alban, had thus annexed a great English-speaking region, which remained loyal to their dynasty, the more loyal from abhorrence of the Norman conquerors . The English or anglicized element in Scotland was never subjugated by England, save during the few years of the Cromwellian See also:Commonwealth, and was supported (with occasional defections, and troubles caused by dynastic Celtic risings) by the Celtic element in the kingdom during the long struggle for national See also:independence . Scotland, in short, was too English to be conquered by England . Poor, distracted, threatened on occasion by the Celts on her flank and See also:rear, anglicized Scotland preferred her poverty with independence, to the prosperity and peace which England would have given, if unresisted, but never could impose by war . Her independence, her resistance, curbed the conquering ambitions of England abroad; and it went for something in securing the independence of France, and the success of Protestantism, where it succeeded . A sturdy and stoical See also:temper was developed in the nation, which later helped parliamentary England in the struggle against the crown (1643—1648) . Habits of foreign See also:adventure and of See also:thrift were evolved, which were of advantage to the empire when, too long after the union of 1707, Scottish men were admitted to participate in its privileges and in its administration . Such were the consequences, in the sequel, of what seemed a disastrous event, the absorption, by a Celtic kingdom, of a large and fertile region of northern England . The English element in the realm of Malcolm II . (1005—1034) was the conducting medium of western ideas which naturally appealed to the interests and the ambitions of that prince . On looking at the genealogical tree of the manlao of dynasty of Kenneth MacAlpine, we see that from the iI date of his death (859) to the accession of See also:Duncan on the death of Malcolm II . (1034) no monarch is succeeded by his own son or See also:grandson . The same peculiarity appears in the list of the ancient kings of Rome, but these are entangled in See also:mythology . In the dynasty of Kenneth the succession to the crown alternated thus: he was succeeded by his brother Donald, who was followed: by his See also:nephew, Kenneth's son, Constantine; Constantine's brother, Aodh, followed; and henceforth till 957, the kings were alternately chosen from the houses of Constantine wars of Picts and Scots . and Aodh . It was the custom to appoint the successor to the king, his "Tanist," at the same time as the king himself . Malcolm II. succeeded his own See also:cousin, and, in accordance with the native system of royal See also:inheritance, should have been followed by the unnamed grandson of his own predecessor, Kenneth III . But Malcolm is accused of putting his legitimate successor out of the way, and thus securing the succession of his own grandson, Duncan, a son of his daughter, Bethoc, and her See also:husband Crinan, See also:protector of the abbey (or See also:lay abbot) of See also:Dunkeld . Malcolm thus set the example of advance to the western system of royal successions, while in Crinan's lay tenure of the abbacy of Dunkeld we see the See also:habit of appropriating ecclesiastical revenues which again became so common about a century before the Reformation . The innovation of Malcolm II. brought no peace but a See also:sword . Boedhe, son of Kenneth III., left a daughter, Gruach, who inherited the claims of the unnamed son of Boedhe slain by order of Malcolm . Gruach married Gilcomgain, and had issue male, Lulach . After the death of Gilcomgain, Gruach wedded See also:Macbeth, See also:Mormaor (or See also:earl in later See also:style) of the province or sub-kingdom of Moray; Macbeth slew Duncan, and ruled as protector of the legitimate claims of Lulach . From Lulach descended a line of Celtic pretendants, and for a century the dynasty violently founded by Malcolm II. was opposed by claimants of the blood of Lulach, representing the Celtic customs adverse to the English and Norman ideas of the family in possession of the throne . Thus Celtic principles, as opposed to the western principles of chartered See also:feudalism, did not perish in Scotland without a long and severe struggle . Meanwhile the dynasty of Malcolm II. was brought into close connexion with the English crown, and relied on English support, Malcolm both before and after the Norman Conquest . The c.anmore. See also:genius of See also:Shakespeare, in his Macbeth, based on legendary materials borrowed by Hollinshed from Hector Boece, and on the dynastic myth of the descent of the Stuart kings from Banquo, has clouded the actual facts of history . To the Celts of Scotland, or at least to those of the great sub-kingship or province of Moray, Duncan, not Macbeth, was the usurper . Duncan left sons, Malcolm, called Canmore (great head), and Donald See also:Ban; and in 1054 See also:Siward, earl of Northumbria, defeated Macbeth, whether acting under the order of Edward the See also:Confessor in favour of the claims of Malcolm Can-more, or merely to punish Macbeth for sheltering Norman fugitives from the Confessor's court . The latter casus See also:belli is the more probable, though the chronicler, See also:Florence of See also:Worcester, asserts the protection of the sons of Duncan by England . Siward did not dethrone Macbeth, who was defeated and slain by Malcolm in1057; Lulach fell obscurely in 1o58, leaving claimants to his rights, though these did not trouble much the crowned king, Malcolm Canmore . His long reign (1058-1093), and his second marriage (1o68) with Margaret, See also:sister of See also:Edgar See also:IEtheling, of the ancient English royal blood—dispossessed by the Norman Conqueror—intensified the sway of English ideas in Scotland, and increased the prepotency of the English element in political, social and ecclesiastical affairs . The anarchic state of Northumberland and Cumberland after the Norman Conquest, which did not soon assimilate them, was Malcolm's opportunity . He held Cumberland (1070), and supported the claims of his brother-in-law, the IEtheling, while his relationship with See also:Gospatric, earl of Northumbria, who retired into Scotland, gave him pre-texts for invading the north-east of England . William the Conqueror's earl of Northumberland, Robert de See also:Comines, was slain at Durham in 1069, and the houses of Gospatric (earls of See also:Dunbar and March) and of de Comines (the Comyns of See also:Badenoch) were long puissant in Scottish history . In 1072 William marched north and took a disputed homage of Malcolm at See also:Abernethy, receiving as See also:hostage the king's eldest son (by his first wife, Ingebiorge), named Duncan . As to the nature of Malcolm's homage, whether for Scotland (Freeman), or for manors and a See also:subsidy in England(See also:Robertson), historians disagree . Malcolm subdued " the King of Moray," son of Lulach, who died in far Lochaber, though his family's claims to thecrown of Scotland did not See also:lapse . In 1o91 William See also:Rufus renewed the treaty of Abernethy with Malcolm and fortified See also:Carlisle, thereby cutting Malcolm off from Cumberland; Malcolm was summoned to meet Rufus at See also:Gloucester; he went, but declined to accept the jurisdiction of the Anglo-Norman peers, or to "do right" to Rufus, except on the frontier of the two realms, wherever he may have supposed that frontier to be . He was an independent king, no See also:vassal of England; as such (1093) he invaded Northumberland, and was slain at See also:Alnwick . His wife, St Margaret, did not survive her sorrow; she died in the castle of Edinburgh . Her reforms in church matters had apparently made her unpopular with the Celts, but under cover of a mist her body was conveyed to and buried at Dunfermline . Margaret, in fact, completed the reduction of the Celtic church in Scotland to conformity with western Christendom, and some recent presbyterian writers have not forgiben her . Beautiful, charitable and pious, she mollified the fierce See also:manners of her husband, who, according to her director and biographer, See also:Turgot, acted as interpreter between her and the Gaelic-speaking ecclesiastics at their conferences . Certain obscure religious usages, as regards See also:Lent, the Communion, the non-observance of See also:Sunday, non-communicating at Easter, and the Forbidden Degrees in marriage, were brought into conformity with western Christen-dom . The last Celtic " bishop of Alban " died at this time; and when the dynasty of Malcolm Canmore was established after an interval of turmoil, English ecclesiastics began to oust the Celtic Culdees from St Andrews .
Malcolm would have been succeeded by his eldest son by Margaret, Edward, but he fell beside his father at Alnwick, and the succession was disputed between Duncan, son of Malcolm by his first wife; See also:Edmund, eldest surviving son of Malcolm and Margaret; and Donald Ban, brother of Malcolm
.
The Celts (apart from the claimant of the blood of Lulach and the house of Moray) placed Donald Ban on the throne; England supported Duncan (by See also:primogeniture Malcolm's See also:heir, and a hostage in England); there was division of the kingdom till Duncan was slain, and Edgar, son of Malcolm and Margaret, was restored by Edgar IEtheling
.
He put out the eyes of his See also:uncle, Donald Ban, and in unsaintly ways established the dynasty of the English St Margaret and of the Celtic Malcolm
.
In 1103 Edgar's sister, Eadgyth (See also:Matilda), married See also: With Anglo-Norman aid he repelled a Celtic rising—the right Qf Alexander l . the claimants to represent the blood of Lulach is exquisitely complex and obscure in this case—but in the end David annexed to the crown the great old sub-kingdom or province of Moray, and made grants therein to English, Norman and Scottish followers . Some of the most eminent of his southern allies could not stand by David when, in the reign of See also:Stephen and in fidelity to the cause of his niece, the empress Matilda, daughter of Henry I., he invaded England . The towns of Northumberland and Cumberland opened their See also:gates, but he and Stephen met in See also:conference at Durham, and David's son Henry, prince of Scot-land, received the See also:Honour of Huntingdon, Carlisle, See also:Doncaster " and all that pertains to them " (1135) . Stephen's relations with Henry became unfriendly, and in January 1138, in pursuance of Henry's claim to Northumberland, David again invaded . A holy war against him was proclaimed by the See also:archbishop of York, and on the 22nd of See also:August 1138 Bruce, See also:Baliol, and others of David's southern allies renounced fealty to him, and he was defeated at the battle of the Standard, near See also:Northallerton . David regained the shelter of Carlisle, a legate from Rome made peace, and Prince Henry received the See also:investiture of Northumberland, without the strong fortresses of Bamborough and See also:Newcastle . The anarchic weakness of the reign of Stephen enabled David to secure his hold of northern England to the Till, but the death of his gallant and See also:gentle son Henry, in June 1152, left the succession to his son, Malcolm the Maiden, then a See also:child of ten, and David's death (24th of May 1153) exposed Scotland to the dangers of a royal minority . David was, if any man was, the maker of Scotland . The bishoprics erected by him, and his many Lowland abbeys, social Holyrood, See also:Melrose, Dryburgh, Kelso, Jedburgh and and others, confirmed the freedom of the Scottish church polnlca1 from the claims of the see of York, encouraged the growth . improvement of agriculture and endowed the country with beautiful examples of See also:architecture . His charters to land-owners and burghs (charters not being novel in Scotland, but now more lavishly conferred) substituted written documents for the unwritten customs of Celtic tenure, and converted the under kings of provinces into earls of the king, while vice-comites, or sheriffs, administered local justice in the king's name, though Celtic custom still prevailed, under a thin See also:veneer of law, in the Celtic regions, as in Galloway . Where Anglo-Normans obtained lands in Moray and Renfrewshire, there seems to have been no displacement of the population: though a FitzAlan was dominant in Renfrewshire, the " good men," or gentry, still See also:bore Gaelic names, till territorial names—" of " this or that place—came into use . In Lothian the place-names recorded in charters were already, for the most part, English . Beneath the freeholders and noblesse were free tenants, farmers paying rents, mainly in kind, and in services of labour and of war . Below these were the nativi, attached to the land, and changing masters when the land changed hands . These nativi were gradually emancipated, partly through the influence of the church, partly for economic reasons, partly through the rule that any vilein became free after a year's See also:residence in a burgh . Thus Scotland never saw a See also:jacquerie or servile rising . The burghs were not actually the creationg of David and William the See also:Lion, but the rights, duties and privileges which had gradually developed in the towns were in the time of these kings codified and confirmed by charters; the towns had magistrates of their own See also:election, courts, and legalized open markets . The greater burghers had a union, and made laws and regulations for municipal affairs . 'In addition to royal burghs, there were burghs of nobles and of bishops, and the provostship was apt to become, by custom, almost hereditary in a local See also:noble family, which protected the burgesses . The germ of a parliament existed in the crown vassals and the royal officials—chancellor, steward, See also:constable, marischal and the rest—with bishops, priors, earls, barons and other probi homines . The See also:term iota communitas, " the whole community," appears to denote all freeholders of gentle birth, who might be present at any important See also:assembly for the discussion of national affairs . Burgesses do not yet receive mention as present on such occasions . Scotland was as yet, and in fact remained, destitute of constitutional history as it appears in England . There was, technic-ally speaking, no taxation . The king " lived on his own," on rent of crown lands, feudal fines and aids, wardships, marriages, and the revenues of vacant bishoprics . Opposition used the mechanism of conspiracies; and changes of administration were effected by the seizure of the king's person, especially during the many royal minorities . In the matter of justice, royal succeeded to tribal authority . Offences were no longer against the individual and his See also:kin, but against the king's peace, or against the peace of subordinate holders of courts—earls, thanes, barons, bishops and abbots . See also:Compurgation, the See also:ordeal, and trial by battle began to yield to Visnet, Jugement del Pais, the " good men of the country," giving their See also:verdict, while See also:sentence was passed by the See also:judge, sheriff, See also:alderman or See also:bailiff . " The Four Pleas of the Crown," See also:murder, See also:arson, rape and See also:robbery, were relegated to the king's court, under Alexander II. ruled by four grand justiciaries . While Roman law became the foundation of justice, a learned clerk was needed as See also:assessor and developed into the Lord Justice Clerk . The vice-comes, or sheriff, as the king's direct representative, was the centre of justice for shires, and his judicature tended to encroach on that of noble holders of courts . Royal authority, sheriffs, juries and witnesses gradually superseded ordeal, compurgation, and trial by battle, though even barons long retained the right of " See also:pit and gallows." In the matter of education, the monasteries had their schools, as had the parish churches, and there were high schools in the burghs, and " See also:song-schools." From the time of David to the death of Alexander III . Scotland was relatively peaceful, prosperous, and, in the south, anglicized, and was now in the general See also:movement of western See also:civilization . Malcolm the Maiden, before his early death in 1165, had put down the menacing power of Somerled, lord of the Isles, a chief apparently of mixed Celtic and Scandinavian blood, the founder of the great See also:clan of See also:Macdonald, whose chiefs, the lords of the Isles, were almost royal; Malcolm also subdued the Celts of Galloway, sometimes called Picts, but at this time Gaelic in speech . Malcolm's brother, William the Lion (1165-I214), initiated the French alliance, fondly ascribed to the time of See also:Charlemagne . William's desire was to seize Northumberland; in William 1173 he was allied with Henry, the rebellious son of the Lion . Henry II., himself in alliance with France . The See also:capture of William at Alnwick, in July 1174, permitted a Celtic revolt in Galloway, and necessitated the Treaty of See also:Falaise, by which for fifteen years Scotland was absolutely a See also:fief of England, though the clergy maintained their independence of the see of York, which was recognized by Pope See also:Clement III. in 1188 . In a See also:quarrel of church and state the legate had been authorized to lay an See also:interdict on Scotland; William and the country merely disregarded it; and in 1191 a new pope absolved the Scottish king . The Celtic risings now were made in See also:defence of the royal claims of a descendant of Duncan, son of Malcolm Canmore; there were also MacHeth claimants to the old rights of Lulach; Galloway and the Celtic north were ceaselessly agitated . After the death of Henry II. in 1189, Richard I. sold back to Scotland all that his father had gained by the Treaty of Falaise, and William only became Richard's man—for all the lands for which his predecessors had been liegemen to the English kings, a vague phrase but implying that the king of Scotland was not liegeman for Scotland . To John, William did homage (1200) salvo :lure suo . In 1209 he promised to See also:purchase John's See also:goodwill with 15,000 merks, and gave hostages . Peace was preserved till William died in 1214 . In the reign of his successor, Alexander II., the risings of Celtic claimants died out; he converted Argyll into a sheriffdom, and (1237) resigned the claims to Northumberland, in See also:exchange for lands in the northern English counties 'tlex- ander See also:lll . with a rental of £200 yearly . His death in 1249 left the crown to his son, Alexander III., a child of eight, in whose minority began the practice by which parties among the See also:nobility seized the person of the sovereign . At the age of ten, Alexander, at York, wedded a child See also:bride, Margaret, daughter of Henry III . His boyhood was distracted by vague party strifes, but Henry did not See also:attempt to administer his country . In 1261 his queen bore, at See also:Windsor, a daughter, Margaret, who later, marrying See also:Eric, king of See also:Norway, became the mother of " The Maid of Norway," heiress of Alexander III.; the girl whose early death left the succession disputed, and opened the See also:flood-gates of strife . Alexander (126o) won the western isles and the Isle of Man from Norway, paying 4000 merks, and promising a yearly rent of 100 merks . In 1279 Alexander did homage to Edward I. at See also:Westminster, salvo jure suo, and through the lips of Bruce, earl of Carrick . The homage was vague, " for the lands which he holds of the king of England," or according to the Scottish version, " saving my own kingdom." On the death of Alexander's daughter, Margaret of Norway (1283), and of his son, the prince of Scotland, without issue, the estates, at Scone, recognized Margaret's See also:infant daughter as rightful successor . At this assembly were Bruce, earl of Annandale; Robert de Brus, earl of Carrick (later king), his son; See also:Comyn, earl of See also:Buchan; John Baliol; and James the Steward of Scotland, of the house of FitzAlan . On the 19th of March 1286 Alexander died, in consequence of a slip made by his See also:horse on a cliff near See also:Kinghorn during a night ride . His death was the great calamity of Scotland, and is lamented in a famous fragment of early Scottish See also:verse . The golden age of " The Kings of Peace " was ended . The first step of the Scottish noblesse (mainly men of Norman names), after Alexander's death, was to send a See also:secret verbal See also:message to Edward of England . Six custodians of Bruce"' the realm were then appointed, including the bishop See also:Ballot parties. of Glasgow (See also:Wishart) and the bishop of St Andrews (Frazer) . Presently the nobles formed two hostile parties, that of the Bruces and that of Baliol . The Bruce party took up arms, and from the terms of their " band," or agreement, obviously contemplated resistance to the rights of the Maid of Norway, while declaring their fealty to Edward . In 1286—1289 Scotland was on the See also:verge of civil war . Edward procured a papal See also:dispensation for the marriage of the Maid of Norway to his son Edward; the Scots were glad to consent, and preliminaries were adjusted by the Treaty of Birgham (18th of July 129o) . All possible care was taken by the Scots to guard their national independence, but Edward succeeded in inserting his favourite clause, " saving always the rights of the King of England, which belonged, or ought to belong, to him." As the Bruce fattion had asserted their fealty to Edward, the carefully patriotic attitude of the Scots may be ascribed to the two bishops, who did not consistently live on this level . In August Edward ventured a claim to the castles of Scotland, which was not admitted . By the 19th of August it was known that the child queen had arrived in the Orkneys . An assembly was being held at Scone; the Bruces did not appear, but, by the 7th of October, they arrived in arms, on a rumour of |