XXX  . 387 378 38o Orhus 350 342 342 taken See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place at particular seasons of the See also:

• YEAR

year so that they can be roughly calculated on the Sothic basis, others on See also:

• MANETHO (Mav40cov in an inscription of Carthage; MaveBees in a papyrus)

Manetho's figures, See also:

• AVERAGE

average lengths of reigns, See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of the See also:

• TURIN

Turin See also:

• PAPYRUS

Papyrus, &c . Table I. See also:

• PAGE
• PAGE, THOMAS NELSON (1853- )
• PAGE, WILLIAM (1811-1885)

page 79 shows the See also:

• CHRONOLOGY (Gr. xpovo?oyfa, computation of time, xp6vos)

chronology of the first nineteen dynasties, according to See also:

• RECENT

recent authorities, before and after the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of the Kahun Sothic date . The See also:

• DATES

dates of the earlier dynasties in this table are always intended to be only approximate; for instance, See also:

• MEYER, CHRISTIAN ERICH HERMANN VON (18or-1869)
• MEYER, HEINRICH AUGUST WILHELM (1800-1873)
• MEYER, JULIUS LOTHAR (183o-1895)
• MEYER, KONRAD FERDINAND (1825-1898)
• MEYER, VICTOR (1848-1897)
• MEYER, [MARIE] PAUL HYACINTHE (184o- )

Meyer in 1904 allowed an See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error of See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo years either of excess or deficiency in the dates he assigned to the dynasties from the Xth upwards . The other dynasties are dated as in Table II. by different authorities . See Ed . Meyer, Geschichte See also:

• DES

des Altertums, Bd. i . (See also:

• STUTTGART

Stuttgart, 1884), Geschichte des See also:

• ALIEN (Lat. alienus)

alien Agyptens (1887), Agyptische Chronologie (Abhandl. of Prussian See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy) (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1904, with the supplement Nachtrdge zur agypt . Chronologie, ib . 19o7); K . Sethe, " Beitrage zur altesten Geschichte Agyptens " (in his Untersuchungen, Bd. iii.) (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1905) ; J . H .

Breasted, See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

Ancient Records of See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, " See also:

• HISTORICAL

Historical Documents," vol. i . (See also:

• CHICAGO
• CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF

Chicago, 1906); W . M . F . See also:

• PETRIE, GEORGE (179o-1866)
• PETRIE, WILLIAM MATTHEW FLINDERS (1853– )

Petrie, A See also:

• HISTORY

History of Egypt, vol. i . (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1884), vol. iii . (1905), Researches in See also:

• SINAI

Sinai (London, 1906); G . See also:

• MASPERO, GASTON CAMILLE CHARLES (1846– )

Maspero, Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'orient (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 19o4); A . See also:

• WIEDEMANN, GUSTAV HEINRICH (1826-1899)

Wiedemann, Agyptische Geschichte (See also:

• GOTHA

Gotha, 1884) ; articles by Mahler and others in the Zeitschrift See also:

• FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

fur agyptische Sprache and Orientalistische Literaturzeitung (recent years) . (F . LI .. G.) r .

From the Earliest Times to the Moslem See also:

• CONQUEST

Conquest . In the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of a strict chronology, the epochs of Pharaonic history are conveniently reckoned in dynasties according to Manetho's See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme, and these dynasties are grouped into longer periods: the Old See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom (Dynasties I. to VIII.), including the Earliest Dynasties (I. to III.) and the See also:

• PYRAMID

Pyramid See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

Period (Dynasties IV. to VI.); the See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle Kingdom (Dynasties IX. to XVII.), including the Heracleopolite Dynasties (IX. to X.) and the See also:

• HYKSOS

Hyksos Period (Dynasties XV. to XVII.); the New See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire (Dynasties XVIII. to XX.); the Deltaic Dynasties (Dynasties XXI. to XXXI.), including the Saite and See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian Periods (Dynasties See also:

• XXVI

XXVI. to XXXI.) . The conquest by See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander ushers in the Hellenistic See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, comprising the periods of Ptolemaic and See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• RULE

rule . The Prehistoric Age.—One of the most striking features of recent Egyptology is the way in which the earliest ages of the See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization, before the conventional See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style was formed, have been illustrated by the results of excavation . Until 1895 there seemed little See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope of reaching the records of those remote times, although it was See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain that the civilization had See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in the See also:

• NILE
• NILE, BATTLE OF THE
• NILE, SOBAT

Nile valley for many centuries before the IVth See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

Dynasty, beyond which the earliest known monuments scarcely reached . Since that year, however, there has been a steady flow of discoveries in prehistoric and See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early historic cemeteries, and, partly in consequence of this, monuments already known, such as the See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

annals of the See also:

• PALERMO (Greek, Havopuos; Latin, Panhormus, Panormus)

Palermo See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone, have been made articulate for the beginnings of history in Egypt . It is probable that certain rudely chipped flints, so-called eoliths, in the alluvial gravels (formed generally at the mouth of wadis opening on to the Nile) at See also:

• THEBES (anciently &Oat, Thebae, or in poetry sometimes Oif3a, in modern Greek Phiva, or, according to the corrected pronunciation, Thivae)
• THEBES (e 3a1)
• THEBES, ROMANCE OF

Thebes and elsewhere, are the See also:

• WORK

work of See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man; but it has been shown that such are produced also by natural forces in the See also:

• RUSH
• RUSH, BENJAMIN (1745–1813)
• RUSH, RICHARD (1780–1859)

rush of torrents . On the See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the See also:

• DESERT

desert, at the See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of the valley, See also:

• PALAEOLITHIC (Gr. iraXates, old, and )tWBor, stone)

palaeolithic implements of well-defined See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form are not uncommon, and See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear the marks of a remote antiquity . In some cases they appear to See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie where they were chipped on the sites of See also:

• FLINT
• FLINT, AUSTIN (1812-1886)
• FLINT, or FLTNTSHTRE (sir Gallestr)
• FLINT, ROBERT (1838- )
• FLINT, TIMOTHY (1780-1840)

flint factories . Geologists and anthropologists are not yet agreed on the question whether the See also:

• CLIMATE

climate and See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country have under-gone large changes since these implements were deposited . As yet none have been found in such association with See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal remains as would help in deciding their age, nor have any implements been discovered in See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock-shelters or in caves . Of See also:

• NEOLITHIC, or LATER STONE AGE (Gr. vEOr, new, and XLOos, stone)

neolithic remains, arrowheads and other implements are found in some See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers in the deserts .

In the See also:

• FAYUM

Fayum region, about the borders of the ancient See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake of See also:

• MOERIS, AELIUS
• MOERIS, LAKE OF

Moeris and beyond, theyare particularly abundant and interesting in their forms . But their age is uncertain; some may be contemporary with the advanced culture of the XIIth Dynasty in the Nile valley . Definite history on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand has been gained from the wonderful See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of " prehistoric " cemeteries excavated by J. de See also:

• MORGAN
• MORGAN, DANIEL (1736-1802)
• MORGAN, EDWIN DENNISON (1811-1883)
• MORGAN, JOHN HUNT (1825-1864)
• MORGAN, JOHN PIERPONT (1837–1913)
• MORGAN, LEWIS HENRY (1818-1881)
• MORGAN, SYDNEY, LADY (c. 1783-1859)
• MORGAN, THOMAS (d. 1743)

Morgan, Petrie, Reisner and others on the desert edgings of the cultivated See also:

• ALLUVIUM

alluvium . The See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of archaeological types revealed in them has been tabulated by Petrie in his Diospolis Parva; and the detailed publication of Reisner's unusually careful researches is bringing much new See also:

• LIGHT

light on the questions involved, amongst other things showing the exact point at which the " prehistoric " series merges into the Ist Dynasty, for, as might be surmised, in many cases the prehistoric cemeteries continued in use under the earliest dynasties . The finest pottery, often painted but all hand-made without the See also:

• WHEEL (0. Eng. hweol, hweohl, &c., cognate with Icel. hjol, Dan. hiul, the Indo-European root is seen in Sanskrit chakra, Gr. r in Aos, circle, whence " cycle ")
• WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE

wheel, belongs to the prehistoric period; so also do the finest flint implements, which, in the delicacy and exactitude of their form and flaking, surpass all that is known from other countries . See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

Metal seems to be entirely absent from the earliest type of See also:

• GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL (1846— )

graves, but immediately thereafter See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper begins to appear (See also:

• BRONZE

bronze is hardly to be found before the Xllth Dynasty) . The paintings on the vases show boats driven by oars and sails rudely figured, and the boats bear emblematic See also:

• STANDARDS

standards or ensigns . The cemeteries are found throughout Upper and Middle Egypt, but as yet have not been met with in the See also:

• DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter A, delta, originally used of the mouth of the Nile)

Delta or on its borders . This might be accounted for by the inhabitants of See also:

• LOWER

Lower Egypt having practised a different mode of disposing of the dead, or by their cemeteries being differently placed . Tradition, See also:

• MYTHOLOGY

mythology and later customs make it possible to recover a scrap of the See also:

• POLITICAL

political history of that far-off See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . See also:

• MENES

Menes, the founder of the Ist Dynasty, See also:

• UNITED

united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt . In the prehistoric period, therefore, these two realms were See also:

• SEPARATE

separate .

The See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of Upper Egypt was Nekheb, now represented by the ruins of El Kab, with the royal See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence across the See also:

• RIVER

river at Nekhen (Hieraconpolis) ; that of Lower Egypt was at See also:

• BUTO

Buto (PutO or Dep) in the marshes, with the royal residence in the See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter called Pe . Nekhebi, goddess of El Kab, represented the Upper or' See also:

• SOUTHERN

Southern Kingdom, which was also under the tutelage of the See also:

• GOD

god See also:

• SETH
• SETH (Egyptian Set, Sth~~~{{{or Sts)
• SETH (I* according to Dillmann, " setting " or " slip "; Septuagint, Philo and New Testament, fie, but r Chron. i. 1 Ells in A ; Josephus, EfjOor, Vulg. Seth)

Seth, the goddess Buto and the god See also:

• HORUS (Egyptian Hor)

Horus similarly presiding over the Lower Kingdom . The royal god in the See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace of each was a See also:

• HAWK (O. Eng. hafoc or heafoc, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch havik, Ger. Habicht; the root is hab-, haf-, to hold, cf. Lat. accipiter, from capere)

hawk or Horus . The See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits of the deceased See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings were honoured respectively as the See also:

• JACKAL
• JACKAL (Turk. chakal)

jackal-headed spirits of Nekhen and the hawk-headed spirits of Pe . As we hear also of the " spirits of On " it is probable that See also:

• HELIOPOLIS

Heliopolis was at one time capital of a kingdom . ,In after days the prehistoric kings were known as " Worshippers of Horus " and in Manetho's See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list they are the vfxves " Dead," and ijpwes " Heroes," being looked upon as intermediate between the divine dynasties and those of human kings . It is impossible to estimate the duration of the period represented by the pre-historic cemeteries; that the two kingdoms existed throughout unchanged is hardly probable . According to the somatologist See also:

• ELLIOTT, EBENEZER (1781–1849)

Elliott See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith, the most important See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change in the See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people of Upper Egypt, in the entire range of Egyptian See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

archaeology, took place at the beginning of the dynastic period; and he accounts for this by the mingling of the Lower with the Upper Egyptian See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population, consequent on the uniting of the two countries under one rule . From remains of the age of the IVth Dynasty he is able to define to some extent the type of the population of Lower Egypt as having a better See also:

• CRANIAL

cranial and See also:

• MUSCULAR

muscular development than that of Upper Egypt, probably through See also:

• IMMIGRATION (from Lat. in, into, and tnigrare, to depart)

immigration from See also:

• SYRIA

Syria . The See also:

• ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

advent of the dynasties, however, produced a quickening rather than a dislocation in the development of civilization . It is doubtful whether we possess any See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing of the prehistoric age . A few names of the kings of Lower Egypt are preserved in the first See also:

• LINE

line of the Palermo stone, but no annals are attached to them .

Petrie considers that one of the kings buried at See also:

• ABYDOS

Abydos, provisionally called Nar-mer and whose real name may be Mer or See also:

• BEZA (DE BESZE), THEODORE (1519—1605)

Beza, preceded Menes; of him there are several inscribed records, notably a magnificent carved and inscribed See also:

• SLATE (properly CLAY SLATE; in M. Eng. slat or sclat, from O. Fr. esclat, a small piece of wood used as a tile; esclater, to break into pieces, whence modern Fr. eclat, the root being seen also in Ger. schleissen, to split)

slate See also:

• PALETTE (the Fr. diminutive of pale, spade, blade of an oar, from Lat. Pala, spade, baker's shovel or peel; cf. pandere, to spread)

palette found at Hieraconpolis, with figures of the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king and his See also:

• VIZIER

vizier, See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war-standards and prisoners . To identify him with Bezau (Boethos) of the IInd Dynasty runs See also:

• COUNTER

counter to much archaeological evidence . Sethe places him next after Menes and some would identify him with that king . Another inscribed palette may be pre-dynastic; it perhaps mentions a king named " See also:

• SCORPION (Lat. Scorpio)

Scorpion." The Old Kingdom.—The names of a number of kings attribut- able to the Ist Dynasty are known from their tombs at Abydos . Unfortunately, they are almost exclusively Horus The earliest titles ER B in place of the See also:

• PERSONAL

personal names by dynasties . which they were recorded in the lists of Abydos and Manetho; some, however, of the latter are found, and prove that the See also:

• SCRIBES

scribes of the New Kingdom were unable to read them correctly . Important changes and improvements took place in the writing even during the Ist Dynasty . The personal name of Menes Et= is given by one only of many See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of a king whose Horus-name was Aha, " the Fighter." Doubts have been expressed about the See also:

• IDENTIFICATION (Lat. idem, the same)

identification with Menes, but it is strongly corroborated by the very archaic style of the remains . The name of Aha (Menes) was found in two tombs, one at Nagada See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of Thebes and nearly opposite the road to the Red See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea, the other at Abydos . Manetho makes the Ist Dynasty Thinite, this being the capital of the See also:

• NOME

nome in which Abydos See also:

• LAY

lay . Upper Egypt always had See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

precedence over Lower Egypt, and it seems clear that Menes came from the former and conquered the latter . According to tradition he founded See also:

• MEMPHIS

Memphis which lay on the frontier of his conquest; probably he resided there as well as at Abydos; at any See also:

• RATE

rate relics of one of the later kings of the Ist Dynasty have already been recognized in its vast See also:

• NECROPOLIS

necropolis .

Of the eight kings of the Ist Dynasty, three—the fifth, See also:

• SIXTH

sixth and seventh in the Ramesside list of Abydos —are positively identified by See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb-remains from Abydos, and others are scarcely less certain . Two of the kings have also See also:

• LEFT

left tablets at the copper and See also:

• TURQUOISE

turquoise mines of See also:

• WADI

Wadi Maghara in Sinai . The royal tombs are built of See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick, but one of them, that of Usaphais, had its See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor of See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite from Elephantine . They must have been filled with magnificent See also:

• FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir)

furniture and provisions of every See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, including See also:

• ANNUAL

annual See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record-tablets of the reigns, carved in See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory and See also:

• EBONY (Gr. E(3evos)

ebony . From a fragment on the Palermo stone it is clear that material-existed as See also:

• LATE

late as the Vth Dynasty for a brief See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note of the height of the Nile and other particulars in each year of the reign of these kings . The IInd Dynasty of Manetho appears to have been separated from the Ist even on the Palermo stone; it also was Thinite, and the tombs of several of its nine (?) kings were found at Abydos . The IIIrd Dynasty is given as Memphite by Manetho . Two of the kings built huge See also:

• MASTABA (Arab. for " bench ")

mastaba-tombs at See also:

• BET

Bet Khallaf near Abydos, but the architect and learned See also:

• SCRIBE, AUGUSTIN EUGENE (1791-1860, French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 24th of December 1791. His father was a silk merchant, and he was well educated, being destined for the bar. But, having a real gift for the theatre, a gift which unfortunately

scribe Imhotp designed for one of these two kings, named Zoser, a second and mightier See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

monument at Memphis, the See also:

• GREAT

great step-pyramid of Sakkara . In Ptolemaic times Imhotp was deified, and the traditional importance of Zoser is shown by a forged See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

grant of the Dodecaschoenus to the See also:

• CATARACT (from the Lat. form cataracta of the Gr. Karapplucrgss, a floodgate, or waterfall, properly something which rushes down)

cataract god Khncim, purporting to be from his reign, but in reality dating from the Ptolemaic age . With Snefru, at the end of this dynasty, we reach the beginning of Egyptian history as it was known before the recent discoveries . Monuments and written records are henceforth more numerous and important, and the Palermo annals show a See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale of record . The events in the three years that are preserved include a successful See also:

• RAID

raid upon the negroes, and the construction of See also:

• SHIPS

ships and See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

gates of See also:

• CEDAR (Lat. cedrus, Gr. iapos)

cedar-See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood which must have been brought from the forests of the See also:

• LEBANON
• LEBANON (from Semitic laban, " to be white," or " whitish," probably referring not to snow, but to the bare white walls ofchalk or limestone which form the characteristic feature of the whole range)

Lebanon .

Snefru also set up a tablet at Wadi Maghara in Sinai . He built two pyramids, one of them at Medum in steps, the other, probably in the perfected form, at Dahshur, both lying between Memphis and the Fayum . Pyramids did not cease to be built in Egypt till the New Kingdom; but from the end of the IIIrd to the Vlth Dynasty is pre-eminently the time when the royal pyramid in stone was the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief monument left by each successive king . Zoser and Snefru have been already noticed . The personal name enclosedin a See also:

• CARTOUCHE (a French word adapted from the Ital. cartoccio, a roll of paper, Med Lat. carta, for charta, paper)

cartouche CSI is henceforth the commonest See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of the king . We now reach the IVth Dynasty containing the famous names of See also:

• CHEOPS

Cheops (q.v.), Chephren (Khafre) and Mycerinus (Menkeure), builders respectively of the Great, the Second and the Third Pyramids of Giza . In the best See also:

• ART

art of this time there was a grandeur which was never again attained: Perhaps the noblest example of Egyptian See also:

• SCULPTURE
• SCULPTURE (Lat. sculptura, from sculpere, to carve, cognate with Gr. yXb4ew)

sculpture in the See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round is a See also:

• DIORITE (from the Gr. S&oi4eiv to distinguish, from hA through, Epos, a boundary)

diorite statue of Chephren, one of several found by See also:

• MARIETTE, AUGUSTE FERDINAND FRANCOIS (1821-1881)

Mariette in the so-called See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

Temple of the See also:

• SPHINX (Gr. Q¢lyyea', to draw tight, squeeze)

Sphinx . This " temple " proves to be a monumental See also:

• GATE

gate at the lower end of the great See also:

• CAUSEWAY

causeway leading to the See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau on which the pyramids were built . A king Dedefre, between Cheops and Chephren, built a pyramid at See also:

• ABU

Abu-Roash . Shepseskaf is one of the last in the dynasty . Tablets of most of these kings have been found at the mines of Wadi Maghara . In the neighbourhood of the pyramids there are numerous mastabas of the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court officials with See also:

• FINE

fine sculpture in the chapels, and a few decorated tombs from the end of this centralized dynasty of See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute monarchs are known in Upper Egypt .

A tablet which describes Cheops as the builder of various shrines about the Great Sphinx has been shown to be a priestly See also:

• FORGERY (derived through the French from Latin fabricare, to construct)

forgery, but the Sphinx itself may have been carved out of the rock under the splendid rule of the IVth Dynasty . The Vth Dynasty is said to be of Elephantine, but this must be a See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

mistake . Its kings worshipped Re, the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun, rather than Horus, as their ancestor, and the title 0 " son of the Sun " began to be written by them before the cartouche containing the personal name, while another " See also:

• SOLAR, SOLLER (Lat. solarium, Fr.• galetas, Ital. solaio)

solar " cartouche, containing a name compounded with Re, followed the title . " king 0 0 of Upper and Lower Egypt." Sahure and the other kings of the dynasty built magnificent temples with obelisks dedicated to Re, one of which, that of Neuserre at Abusir, has been thoroughly explored . The marvellous tales of the Westcar Papyrus, dating from the Middle Kingdom, narrate how three of the kings were See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born of a priestess of Re . The pyramids of several of the kings are known . The early ones are at Abusir, and the best preserved of the pyramid temples, that of Sahure, excavated by the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German Orient-Gesellschaft, in its See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

architecture and sculptured scenes has revealed an astonishingly See also:

• COMPLETE

complete development of art and architecture as well as of warlike enterprise by sea and See also:

• LAND

land at this remote period; the latest pyramid belonging to the Vth Dynasty, that of Unas at Sakkara, is inscribed with See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual and magical texts . Exquisitely sculptured tombs of this time are very numerous at Memphis and are found throughout Upper Egypt . Of work in the traditional temples of the country no trace remains, probably because, being in See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone, it has all perished . The annals of the Palermo stone were engraved and added to during this dynasty; the chief events recorded for the time are gifts and endowments for the temples: Evidently priestly See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence was strong at the court . Expeditions to Sinai and Puoni (See also:

• PUNT (from Lat. ponto, pontoon; connected with pons, bridge)

Punt) are commemorated on tablets . The Vlth Dynasty if not more vigorous was more articulate; inscribed tombs are spread throughout the country .

The most active of its kings was the third, named Pepi or Phiops, from whose pyramid at Sakkara the capital, hitherto known as " See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White Walls," derived its later name of Memphis (MN-NFR, Mempi); a tombstone from Abydos celebrates the activity of a certain Una during the reigns of Pepi and his successor in organizing expeditions to the Sinai See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula and See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine, and in transporting granite from Elephantine and other quarries . Herkhuf, See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince of Elephantine and an enterprising See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader of caravans to the south countries both in See also:

• NUBIA

Nubia and the Libyan oases, flourished under Merenre and Pepi II. called Neferkere . On one occasion he brought See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home a See also:

• DWARF (A.S. dweorg, D. dwerg, Icel. dvergr)

dwarf dancer from the See also:

• SUDAN (Arabic Bilad-es-Sudan, country of the blacks)

Sudan, described as being like one brought from Puoni in the time of the fifth-dynasty king Assa; this See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew from the youthful Pepi II. an enthusiastic See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter which was engraved in full upon the See also:

• FACADE

facade of Herkhuf's tomb . The reign of the last-named king, begun early, lasted over ninety years, a fact so long The pyramid period . remembered that even Manetho attributes to him ninety-four years; its length probably caused the ruin of the dynasty . The See also:

• LOCAL

local princelings and monarchs had been growing in culture, See also:

• WEALTH

wealth and See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power, and after Pepi II. an ominous See also:

• GAP

gap in the monuments, pointing to See also:

• CIVIL

civil war, marks the end of the Old Kingdom . The VIIth and VIIIth Dynasties are said to have been Memphite, but of them no record survives beyond some names of kings in the lists . The Middle Kingdom.—The long Memphite rule was broken by the IXth and Xth Dynasties, of Heracleopolis Magna (Hnes) in Middle Egypt . Kheti or Achthoes was apparently Heracieo- a favourite name with the kings, but they are very polite period. obscure . They may have spread their rule by conquest over Upper Egypt and then overthrown the Memphite dynasty . The chief monuments of the period -are certain inscribed tombs at See also:

• ASSIUT, or SLUT

Assiut; it appears that one of the kings, whose praenomen was Mikere, supported by a See also:

• FLEET

fleet and See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army from Upper Egypt, and especially by the prince of Assiut, was restored to his paternal See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of Heracleopolis, from which he had probably been driven out; his pyramid, however, was built in the old royal necropolis at Memphis . Later the princes of Thebes asserted their See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence and founded the Xlth Dynasty, which pushed its frontiers northwards until finally it occupied the whole country .

Its kings were named Menthotp, from Mont, one of the gods of Thebes; others, perhaps sub-kings, were named Enyotf (Antef) . They were buried at Thebes, whence the coffins of several were obtained by the early collectors of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . Nibadtp Menthotp I. probably established his rule over all Egypt . The funerary temple of Nebhepre Menthotp III., the last but one of these kings, has been excavated by the Egypt Exploration Fund at See also:

• DEIR, or DEIR

Deir el Bahri, and must have been a magnificent monument . His successor Sankhkere Menthotp IV. is known to have sent an expedition by the Red Sea to Puoni . The XIIth Dynasty is the central point of the Middle Kingdom, to which the decline of the Memphite and the rise of the Heracleopolite dynasty See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark the transition, while the growth of Thebes under the Xlth Dynasty is its true starting-point . Monuments of the XIIth Dynasty are abundant and often of splendid See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design and workmanship, whereas previously there had been little produced since the Vlth Dynasty that was not See also:

• HALF

half barbarous . Although not much of the history of the Xllth Dynasty is ascertained, the Turin Papyrus and many dated See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix the succession and length of reign of the eight kings very accurately; The troubled times that the kingdom had passed through taught the long-lived monarchs the pre-caution of associating a competent successor on the See also:

• THRONE

throne . The nomarchs and the other feudal chiefs were inclined to strengthen themselves at the expense of their neighbours; a See also:

• FIRM

firm hand was required to hold them in check and distribute the honours as they were earned by faithful service .. The tombs of the most favoured and wealthy princes are magnificent, particularly those of certain families in Middle Egypt at Beni See also:

• HASAN

Hasan, El Bersha, Assiut and Deir Rifa, and it is probable that each had a court and organization within his nome like that of the royal palace in See also:

• MINIATURE

miniature . Eventually, in the reigns of Senwosri III. and Amenemhe III., the succession of strong kings appears to have centralized all authority very completely . The names in the dynasty are Amenemhe (Ammenemes) and Senwosri (formerly read Usertesen or Senusert) .

The latter seems to be the origin of the See also:

• SESOSTRIS

Sesostris (q.v.) and Sesoosis of the legends . Amenemhe I., the first king, whose connexion with the previous dynasty is not known, reigned for See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years, ten of them being in See also:

• PARTNERSHIP (earlier forms, partener, parcener, from Late Lat. partionarius for partitionarius, from partitio, sharing, pars, part)

partnership with his son Senwosri I . He had to fight for his throne and then reorganize the country, removing his capital or residence from Thebes to a central situation near Lisht about 25 M. south of Memphis . His monuments are widespread in Egypt, the quarries and mines in the desert as far as Sinai bear See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness to his great activity, and we know of an expedition which he made against the Nubians . The " Instructions of Amenemhe to his son Senwosri," whether really his own or a later See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition, refer to these things, to his care for his subjects, and to theingratitude with which he was rewarded, an See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt on his See also:

• LIFE

life having been made by the trusted servants in his own palace . The See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of Sinai is the true or realistic history of a soldier who. having overheard the See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret intelligence of Amenemhe's See also:

• DEATH

death, fled in fear to Palestine or Syria and there became See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in the favour of the prince of the land; growing old, however, he successfully sued for See also:

• PARDON (through the Fr. from Late Lat. perdonare, to remit a debt or other obligation on a penalty)

pardon from Senwosri and permission to return and See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die in Egypt . Senwosri I. was already the executive partner in the time of the co-regency, warring with the Libyans and probably in the Sudan . After Amenemhe's death he fully upheld the greatness of the dynasty in his long reign of See also:

• FORTY

forty-five years . The See also:

• OBELISK (Gr. b/3EXivrcos, diminutive of OEMs, a spit)

obelisk of Heliopolis is amongst his best-known monuments, and the damming of the Lake of Moeris (q.v.) must have been in progress in his reign . He built a temple far up the Nile at Wadi See also:

• HAIFA

Haifa and there set up a stela commemorating his victories over the tribes of Nubia . The fine tombs of Ameni at Beni Hasan and of Hepzefa at Assiut belong to his reign . The pyramids of both See also:

• FATHER

father and son are at Lisht .

Amenemhe II. was buried at Dahshur; he was followed by Senwosri II., whose pyramid is at Illahun at the mouth of the . Fayum . In his reign were executed the fine paintings in the tomb of Khnemhotp at Beni Hasan, which include a remarkable See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene of Semitic See also:

• BEDOUINS (Ahl Bedu, " dwellers in the open land," or Ahl el beit, " people of the tent," as they call themselves)

Bedouins bringing See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye-paint to Egypt from the eastern deserts . In Manetho he is identified with Sesostris (see. above), but Senwosri I., and still more Senwosri III., have a better claim to this distinction . The latter warred in Palestine and in Nubia, and marked the south frontier of his kingdom by a statue and stelae at Semna beyond the Second Cataract . Near his pyramid was discovered the splendid See also:

• JEWELRY (O. Fr. jouel, Fr. joyau, perhaps from joie, joy; Lat. gaudium; retranslated into Low Lat. jocale, a toy, from jocus, by misapprehension of the origin of the word)

jewelry of some princesses of his See also:

• FAMILY

family (see JEWELRY ad init.) . The tomb of, Thethotp at El Bersha, celebrated for the scene of the transport of a See also:

• COLOSSUS

colossus amongst its paintings, was finished in this reign . Amenemhe III. completed the work of Lake Moeris and began a series of observations of the height of the inundation at Semna which was continued by his successors . In his long reign of forty-six years he built a pyramid at Dahshur, and at Hawara near the Lake of Moeris another pyramid together with the See also:

• LABYRINTH (Gr. Xa(3vpcvOos, Lat. labyrinthus)

Labyrinth which seems to have been an enormous funerary temple attached to the pyramid . His name was remembered in the Fayum during the Graeco-Roman period and his effigy worshipped there as Pera-marres, i.e . See also:

• PHARAOH (Par'oh)

Pharaoh Marres (Marres being his praenomen graecized) . Amenemhe IV.'s reign was See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short, and the dynasty ended with a See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

queen Sebeknefru (Scemiophris), whose name is found in the scanty remains of the Labyrinth .

The XIIth Dynasty numbered eight rulers and lasted for 213 years . Great as it was, it created no empire outside the Nile valley, and its most imposing monument, which according to the testimony of the ancients rivalled the pyramids, is now represented by a vast stratum of chips . The history of the following period down to the rise of the New Empire is very obscure . Manetho gives us the XIIIth (Dios-polite) Dynasty, the XIVth (Xoite from Xois in Lower Egypt), the XVth and XVIth (Hyksos) and the XVIIth (Diospolite), but his names are lost except for the Hyksos kings . The Abydos tablet ignores all between the XIIth and XVIIIth Dynasties . The Turin Papyrus preserves many names on its shattered fragments, and the monuments are for ever adding to the list, but it is difficult to assign them accurately to their places . The Hyksos names can in some cases be recognized by their See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign aspect, the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar style of the scarabs on which they are en-graved or by resemblances to those recorded in Manetho . The kings of the XVIIth Dynasty too are generally recognizable by the form of their name and other circumstances . Manetho indicates marvellous crowding for the XIIIth and XIVth Dynasties, but it seems better to suggest a See also:

• TOTAL

total duration of 300 or 400 years for the whole period than to adopt Meyer's estimate of about 210 years (see above, Chronology) . Amongst the kings of the XIIIth Dynasty (including perhaps the XIVth), not a few are represented by granite statues of See also:

• COLOSSAL

colossal See also:

• SIZE

size and fine workmanship, especially at Thebes and Tanis, some by architectural fragments, some by graffiti on the rocks about the First Cataract . Some few certainly reigned over all Egypt . Sebkhotp (Sekhotp, Eoxwmis) is a favourite name, no doubt to be connected with the god of the Fayum .

Several of the Theban kings named Antef (Enyotf) must be placed here rather than in the Xlth Dynasty . A See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree of one of them degrading a monarch who had sided with his enemies was found at See also:

• COPTOS (Egyptian Keft, Kebto)

Coptos engraved on a See also:

• DOORWAY (corresponding to the Gr. Iran, Lat. porte)

doorway of Senwosri I . In its divided See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state Egypt would fall an easy See also:

• PREY (0. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed—seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp)

prey to the foreigner . Manetho says that the Hyksos (q.v.) gained Egypt without a See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow . Their domination must have lasted The a considerable time, the Rhind mathematical papyrus periods period. having been cin the thirty-third year of a king copied Apophis . The monuments and scarabs of the Hyksos kings are found throughout Upper and Lower Egypt; those of Khian somehow spread as far as See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete and See also:

• BAGDAD, or BAGHDAD

Bagdad . The Hyksos, in whom See also:

• JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS (c. 37-C. 95?)

Josephus recognized the See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children of See also:

• ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel, worshipped their own Syrian deity, identifying him with the Egyptian god Seth, and endeavoured to establish his cult throughout Egypt to the detriment of the native gods . It is to be hoped that definite light may one See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day be forthcoming on the whole of this See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical See also:

• EPISODE

episode which had such a profound effect on the character and history of the Egyptian people . The spirited overthrow of the Hyksos ushered in the glories in arms and arts which marked the New Empire . The XVIIth Dynasty probably began the struggle, at first as semi-See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent kinglets at Thebes . Segenenre is here a leading name; the See also:

• MUMMY (from the Persian mumiai, pitch or asphalt)

mummy of the third Segenenre, the earliest in the great find of royal mummies at Deir el Bahri, shows the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head frightfully hacked and split, perhaps in a See also:

• BATTLE

battle with the Hyksos . The New Empire.—The epithet " new " is generally attached to this period, and " empire " instead of " kingdom " marks its XVIIIth wider power .

The glorious XVIIIth Dynasty seems Dynasty, to have been closely related to the XVIIth . Its first task was to crush the Hyksos power in the north-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east of the Delta; this was fully accomplished by its founder Ahmosi (dialectically Ahmasi, Amosis or See also:

• AMASIS

Amasis I.) capturing their great stronghold of Avaris . Amasis next attacked them in S.W . Palestine, where he captured Sharuhen after a See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege of three years . He fought also in Syria and in Nubia, besides overcoming factious opposition in his own land . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal source for the history of this time is the See also:

• BIOGRAPHICAL

biographical inscription at El Kab of a namesake of the king, Ahmosi son of See also:

• ABANA (or AMANAH, classical Chrysorrhoas)

Abana, a sailor and See also:

• WARRIOR

warrior whose exploits extend to the reign of Tethmosis I . Amenophis I . (Amenhotp), succeeding Amasis, fought in See also:

• LIBYA

Libya and See also:

• ETHIOPIA, or AETHIOPIA (Gr. AlOtoaia)

Ethiopia . Tethmosis I . (c . 1540 B.c.) was perhaps of another family, but obtained his title to the throne through his wife Ahmosi . After some thirty years of settled rule uninterrupted by revolt, Egypt was now strong and rich enough to indulge to the full its new See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste for war and lust of conquest .

It had become essentially a military state . The whole of the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration was in the hands of the king with his vizier and other court officials; no trace of the See also:

• FEUDALISM
• FEUDALISM (from Late Lat. feodum or feudum, a fee or fiel; see FEE)

feudalism of the Middle Kingdom survived . Tethmosis thoroughly subdued See also:

• CUSH

Cush, which had already been placed under the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of a See also:

• VICEROY (from O. Fr. viceroy, mod. viceroi, i.e. Lat. vice, in place of, and roy or roi, king)

viceroy . This See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Cush extended from Napata just below the See also:

• FOURTH

Fourth Cataract on the south to El Kab in the north, so that it included the first three nomes of Upper Egypt, which agriculturally were not greatly See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior to Nubia . Turning next to Syria, Tethmosis carried his arms as far as the See also:

• EUPHRATES (Babylon. Purattu, Heb. Perath, Arab. Frdt or Furst, Old Pers. Ufratu, Gr. Eb4 parrls)

Euphrates . It is possible that his predecessor had also reached this point, but no record survives to prove it . These successful See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

campaigns were probably not very costly, and prisoners, See also:

• PLUNDER

plunder and See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute poured in from them to enrich Egypt . Tethmosis I. made the first of those great additions to the temple of the Theban See also:

• AMMON
• AMMON, CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH VON (1766—185o)

Ammon at See also:

• KARNAK

Karnak by which the Pharaohs of the Empire rendered it by far the greatest of the existing temples in the See also:

• WORLD

world . The temple of Deir el Bahri also was designed by him . Towards the end of his reign, his See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

elder sons being dead, Tethmosis associated Queen Hatshepsut, his daughter by Ahmosi, with himself Hatshep- ~' out, upon the throne . Tethmosis I. was the first of the long line of kings to be buried in the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings of Thebes . At his death another son Teth- mosis II. succeeded as the See also:

• HUSBAND

husband of his half-See also:

• SISTER

sister, but reigned only two or three years, during which he warred in Nubia and placed Tethmosis III., his son by a concubine Esi, upon the throne beside him (c. r 50o B.C.) .

After her husband's death the ambitious Hatshepsut assumed the full See also:

• REGAL

regal power; upon her monuments she wears the masculine garb and aspect of a king though the feminine gender is retained for her in the inscriptions . On some monuments of this period her name appears alone, on others in See also:

• CONJUNCTION (from Lat. conjungere, to join together)

conjunction with that of Tethmosis III., while the latter again may appear without the queen's; but this extraordinary woman must have had a great influence over her stepson and was the acknowledged ruler of Egypt . Tethmosis, to See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge by the evidence of his mummy and the chronology of his reign, was already a grown man, yet no sign of the immense See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers which he displayed later has come down to us from the See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint reign . Hatshepsut cultivated the arts of See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace . She restored the See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship in those temples of Upper and Lower Egypt which had not yet recovered from the religious oppression and neglect of the Hyksos . She completed and decorated the temple of Deir el Bahri, embellishing its walls with scenes calculated to establish her claims, representing her divine origin and upbringing under the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of Ammon, and her association on the throne by her human father . The famous sculptures of the great expedition by See also:

• WATER

water to Puoni, the land of See also:

• INCENSE

incense on the Somali See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast, are also here, with many others . At Karnak Hatshepsut laboured chiefly to complete the See also:

• WORKS

works projected in the reigns of Tethmosis I. and II., and set up two obelisks in front of the entrance as it then was . One of these, still See also:

• STANDING

standing, is the most brilliant See also:

• ORNAMENT (Lat. ornare, to adorn)

ornament of that wonderful temple . A date of the twenty-second year of her reign has been found at Sinai, no doubt counted from the beginning of the co-regency with Tethmosis I . Not much later, in his twenty-second year, Tethmosis III. is reigning alone in full vigour . While she lived, the See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality of the queen secured the devotion of her servants and held all ambitions in check .

Not long after her death there was a violent reaction . See also:

• PREJUDICE (Lat. praejudicium)

Prejudice against the rule of a woman, particularly one who had made her name and figure so conspicuous, was probably the cause of this outbreak, and perhaps sought See also:

• JUSTIFICATION

justification in the fact that, however complete was her right, she had in some degree usurped a place to which her stepson (who was also her See also:

• NEPHEW

nephew) had been appointed . Her cartouches began to be defaced or her monuments hidden up by other buildings, and the same rage pursued some of her most faithful servants in their tombs . But the beauty of the work seems to have restrained the hand of the destroyer . Then came the religious fanaticism of Akhenaton, mutilating all figures of Ammon and all inscriptions containing his name; this made havoc of the exquisite monuments of Hatshepsut; and the restorers of the XIXth Dynasty, refusing to recognize the See also:

• LEGITIMACY

legitimacy of the queen, had no scruples in replacing her names by those of the See also:

• ASSOCIATE (Lat. associates, from ad, to, and sociare to join)

associate kings Tethmosis I., II. or III . These acts of vandalism took place throughout Egypt, but in the distant mines of Sinai the cartouches of Hatshepsut are untouched . In the royal lists of Seti I. and See also:

• RAMESES, or RAMESSES (Gen. xlvii. r1; Exod. xii. 37; Num. xxxiii. 3)

Rameses II . Hatshepsut has no place, nor is her reign referred to on any later monument) . The immense See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy of Tethmosis III. now found its outlet in war . Syria had revolted, perhaps on Hatshepsut's death, but by his twenty-second year the monarch was ready to See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead his army against the rebels . The revolt, headed Te=hmoosis by the city of Kadesh on the See also:

• ORONTES

Orontes, embraced the whole of western Syria . The movements of Tethmosis in this first See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign, including a battle with the Syrian chariots and See also:

• INFANTRY

infantry at Megiddo and the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of that city, were chronicled from day to day, and an See also:

• EXTRACT (from Lat. extrahere, to draw out)

extract from this See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

chronicle is engraved on the walls of the See also:

• SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place)

sanctuary of Karnak, together with a brief record of the subsequent expeditions .

In a series i The history of Hatshepsut has been very obscure, and the mutilations of her cartouches have been variously accounted for . Recent discoveries by M . Legrain at Karnak and Prof . Petrie at Sinai have limited the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of conjecture . The writer has followed M . Naville's guidance in his See also:

• BIOGRAPHY (from the Gr. (3ios, life, and yp&4 , writing)

biography of the queen (in T . M . See also:

• DAVIS (or DAVYS), JOHN (1550 ?-16o5)
• DAVIS, ANDREW JACKSON (1826—1910)
• DAVIS, CHARLES HOWARD (1857- )
• DAVIS, CUSHMAN KELLOGG (1838-1900)
• DAVIS, HENRY WILLIAM BANKS (1833- )
• DAVIS, HENRY WINTER (1817-1865)
• DAVIS, JEFFERSON (1808–1889)
• DAVIS, THOMAS OSBORNE (1814–1845)

Davis, The Tomb of Hatshopsitzl, London, 1906, pp. i et seq.), made with very full knowledge of the complicated data . of five carefully planned campaigns he consolidated his conquests in southern Syria and secured the ports of See also:

• PHOENICIA

Phoenicia (q.v.) . Kadesh See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell in the sixth campaign . In the next year Tethmosis revisited the Phoenician ports, chastised the rebellious and received the tribute of Syria, all the while preparing for further advance, which did not take place until another year had gone by . Then, in the thirty-third year of his reign, he marched through Kadesh, fought his way to Carchemish, defeated the forces that opposed him there and crossed over the Euphrates into the territory of the king of Mitanni .

He set up a tablet by the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of that of Tethmosis I. and turned southward, following the river as far as Niy . Here he stayed to See also:

• HUNT, ALFRED WILLIAM (183o-1896)
• HUNT, HENRY (1i73-1835)
• HUNT, HENRY JACKSON (1819-1889)
• HUNT, JAMES HENRY LEIGH (1784-1859)
• HUNT, ROBERT (1807-1887)
• HUNT, THOMAS STERRY (1826-1892)
• HUNT, WILLIAM HENRY (1790—1864)
• HUNT, WILLIAM HOLMAN (1827-1910)
• HUNT, WILLIAM MORRIS (1824-1879)

hunt a See also:

• HERD (a word common to Teutonic languages; the O. Eng. form was heord; cf. Ger. Herde, Swed. and Dan. hjord; the Sans. ca'rdhas, which shows the pre-Teutonic form, means a troop)

herd of 120 elephants, and then, marching westwards, received the tribute of Naharina and gifts from the See also:

• HITTITES

Hittites in See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor and from the king of See also:

• BABYLON (mod. Hillah)

Babylon . In all he fought seventeen campaigns in Syria until the spirit of revolt was entirely crushed in a second capture of Kadesh . The See also:

• WARS

wars in Libya and Ethiopia were of less moment . In the intervals of war Tethmosis III. proved to be a wonderfully efficient See also:

• ADMINISTRATOR

administrator, with his eye on every corner of his dominions . The Syrian expeditions occupied six months in most of his best years, but the remaining time was spent in activity at home, repressing See also:

• ROBBERY (from O. Fr. rober, to steal)

robbery and injustice, rebuilding and adorning temples with the labour of . his captives and the plunder and tribute of conquered cities, or designing with his own hand the gorgeous sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Ammon . In his later years some expeditions took place into Nubia . Tethmosis died in the fifty-fourth year of his reign . His mummy, found in the cachette at Deir el Bahri, is said to be that of a very old man . He was the greatest Pharaoh in the New Empire, if not in all Egyptian history . Tethmosis III. was succeeded by his son Amenophis II., whom he had associated on the throne at the end of his reign . One of the first acts of the new king was to lead an army into Syria, where revolt was again rife; he reached and perhaps crossed the Euphrates and returned home to Thebes with seven See also:

• CAPTIVE (from Lat. capere, to take)

captive kings of Tikhsi and much spoil .

The kings he sacrificed to Ammon and hanged six bodies on the walls, while the seventh was carried south to Napata and there exposed as a terror to the Ethiopians . Amenophis reigned twenty-six years and left his throne to his son Tethmosis IV., who is best remembered by a granite tablet recording his clearance of the Great Sphinx . He also warred in See also:

• NORTHERN

northern Syria and in Cush . His son Amenophis III., c. r400 B.C., was a mighty builder, especially at Thebes, where his reign marks a new See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch in the history of the great temples, See also:

• LUXOR

Luxor being his creation, while avenues of rams, pylons, &c., were added on a vast scale to Karnak . He married a certain Taia, who, though apparently of humble parentage, was held in great See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour by her husband as afterwards by her son . Amenophis Amenophis III. warred in Ethiopia, but his sway was long unquestioned from Napata to the Euphrates . Small See also:

• OBJECTS

objects with his name and that of Taia are found on the mainland and in the islands of See also:

• GREECE

Greece . Through the fortunate discovery of See also:

• CUNEIFORM (from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

cuneiform tablets deposited by his successor in the archives at Tell el-Amarna, we can see how the rulers of the great kingdoms beyond the river, Mitanni, See also:

• ASSYRIA

Assyria and even Babylonia, corresponded with Amenophis, gave their daughters to him in See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage, and congratulated themselves on having his friendship . The king of See also:

• CYPRUS
• CYPRUS, CHURCH OF

Cyprus too courted him; while within the empire the descendants of the Syrian dynasts conquered by his father, having been educated in Egypt, ruled their paternal possessions as the abject slaves of Pharaoh . A See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant stream of tribute poured into Egypt, sufficient to defray the cost of all the splendid works that were executed . Amenophis caused a series of large scarabs unique in their kind to be engraved with the name and parentage of his queen Taia, followed by varying texts commemorating like medals the boundaries of his kingdom, his secondary marriage with Gilukhipa, daughter of the king of Mitanni, the formation of a sacred lake at Thebes, a great hunt of See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle, and the number of lions the king sl in the first ten years of his reign . The colossi known to the Greeks by the name of the Homeric See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero See also:

• MEMNON

Memnon, which look over the western plain of Thebes, represent this king and were placed before the entrance of his funerary temple, the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of which has disappeared .

His palace lay farther south on the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west See also:

• BANK

bank, built of crude brick covered with painted See also:

• STUCCO (Ital. stucco, adapted from O.H.G. stucchi, crust, piece, patch, Ger. Stuck, piece, allied to stock)

stucco . Towards the end of his reign of thirty-six years, Syria was invaded by the Hittites from the north and the people called the Khabiri from the eastern desert; some of the kinglets conspired with the invaders to overthrow the Egyptian power, while those who remained loyal sent alarming reports to their See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign . Amenophis IV., son of Amenophis III. and Taia, was perhaps the most remarkable character in the long line of the Pharaohs . He was a religious fanatic, who had probably been high of the sun-god at Heliopolis, and had come to Amenophis See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest iv . view the sun as the visible source of life, creation, growth and activity, whose power was demonstrated in foreign lands almost as clearly as in Egypt . Thrusting aside all the multitudinous deities of Egypt and all the mythology even of Heliopolis, he devoted himself to the cult of the visible sun-disk, applying to it as its chief name the hitherto rare word Aton, meaning " sun "; the traditional divine name Harakht (Horns of the See also:

• HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon), given to the hawk-headed sun-god of Heliopolis, was however allowed to subsist and a temple was built at Karnak to this god . The worship of the other gods was officially recognized until his fifth year, but then a sweeping reform was initiated by which apparently the new cult alone was permitted . Of the old deities Ammon represented by far the wealthiest and most powerful interests, and against this long favoured deity the Pharaoh hurled himself with fury . He changed his own name from Amenhotp, " Ammon is satisfied," to Akhenaton, " pious to Aton," erased the name and figure of Ammon from the monuments, even where it occurred as See also:

• PART

part of his own father's name, abandoned Thebes, the magnificent city of Ammon, and built a new capital at El Amarna in the plain of Hermopolis, on a virgin site upon the edge of the desert . This with a large See also:

• AREA

area around he dedicated to Aton in the sixth year, while splendid temples, palaces, houses and tombs for his god, for himself and for his courtiers were rising around him; apparently also this " son of Aton " swore an See also:

• OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

oath never to pass beyond the boundaries of Aton's See also:

• SPECIAL

special domain . There are signs also that the polytheistic word " gods " was obliterated on many of the monuments, but other divine names, though almost entirely excluded from Akhenaton's work, were left untouched where they already existed . In all local temples the worship of Aton was instituted .

The confiscated revenues of Ammon and the tribute from Syria and Cush provided ample means for adorning Ekhaton (Akhetaton), " the horizon of Aton," the new capital, and for richly rewarding those who adopted the Aton teaching fervently . But meanwhile the political needs of the empire were neglected; the dangers which threatened it at the end of the reign of Amenophis III. were never properly met; the dynasts in Syria were at war amongst themselves, intriguing with the great Hittite advance and with the Khabiri invaders . Those who relied on Pharaoh and remained loyal as their fathers had done sent letter after letter appealing for aid against their foes . But though a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general was despatched with some troops, he seems to have done more harm than See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good in misjudging the quarrels . At length the See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone of the letters becomes one of despair, in which See also:

• FLIGHT

flight to Egypt appears the only resource left for the adherents of the Egyptian cause . Before the end of the reign Egyptian rule in Syria had probably ceased altogether . Akhenaton died in or about the seventeenth year of his reign, c . 1350 B.C . He had a family of daughters, who appeared constantly with him in all ceremonies, but no son . Two sons-in-See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law followed him with brief reigns; but the second, Tutenkhaton, soon changed his name to Tutenkhamfin, and, without abandoning Ekhaton entirely, began to restore to Karnak its ancient splendour, with new monuments dedicated to Ammon . Akhenaton's reform had not reached deep amongst the masses of the population; they probably retained all their old religious customs and superstitions, while the priesthoods throughout the country must have been fiercely opposed to the heretic's work, even if silenced during his lifetime by force and bribes . One more adherent of his named Ay, a priest, ruled for a short time, but now Aton was only one of many gods .

At length a general named Harmahib, who had served under Akhenaton,came to the throne as a whole-hearted supporter of the old See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion; soon Aton and his royal following suffered the See also:

• FATE

fate that they had imposed upon Ammon; their monuments were destroyed and their names and figures erased, while those of Ammon were restored . From the time of Rameses II. onwards the years of the reigns of the heretics were counted to Harmahib, and Akhenaton was described as " that criminal of Akhetaton." Harmahib had to bring See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order as a See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical man into the long-neglected administration of the country and to suppress the extortions of the See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official classes by severe See also:

• MEASURES

measures . His See also:

• LAWS

laws to this end were engraved on a great stela in the temple of Karnak, of which sufficient remains to bear witness to his high aims, while the prosperity of the succeeding reigns shows how well he realized the necessities of the state . He probably began also to re-establish the See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige of Egypt by military expeditions in the surrounding countries . Harmahib appears to have legitimated his rule by marriage to a royal princess, but it is probable that Rameses I., who suc- ceeded as founder of the XIXth Dynasty, was not closely related to him . Rameses in his brief reign of two years planned and began the great colonnaded See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

hall of Karnak, proving that he was a man of great ideas, though probably too old to carry them out; this task he left to his son Seti I., who reigned one year with his father and on the latter's death was ready at once to subdue the Bedouin Shasu, who had invaded Palestine and withheld all tribute . This task was quickly accomplished and Seti pushed onward to the Lebanon . Here cedars were felled for him by the Syrian princes, and the Phoe- nicians paid See also:

• HOMAGE (from homo, through the Low Lat. hominaticum, which occurs in a document of 1035)

homage before he returned home in See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph . The Libyans had also to be dealt with, and afterwards Seti advanced again through Palestine, ravaged the land of the See also:

• AMORITES

Amorites and came into conflict with the Hittites . The latter, however, were now firmly established in the Orontes valley, and a treaty with Mutallu, the king of Kheta, reigning far away in See also:

• CAPPADOCIA

Cappadocia, probably ended the wars of Seti . In his ninth year he turned his See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to the See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold mines in the eastern desert of Nubia and improved the road thither . Meanwhile the great work at Karnak projected by his father was going forward, and throughout Egypt the injuries done to the monuments by Akhenaton were thoroughly repaired; the erased inscriptions and figures were restored, not without many blunders .

Seti's temple at Abydos and his galleried tomb in the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings stand out as the most splendid examples of their kind in design and in decoration . Rameses II. succeeded at an early age Rameses and reigned sixty-seven years, during which he finished much that was begun by Seti and filled all Egypt and Nubia with his own monuments, some of them beauti- ful, but most, necessarily entrusted to inferior workmen, of coarse See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution . The excavation of the rock temple of Abu Simbel and the completion of the great hall of Karnak were his greatest achievements in architecture . His wars began in his second year, their field comprising the Nubians, the Libyans, the Syrians and the Hittites . In his fifth year, near Kadesh on the Orontes, his army was caught unprepared and divided by a strong force of chariots of the Hittites and their See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies, and Rameses himself was placed in the most imminent danger; but through his personal courage the enemy was kept at See also:

• BAY

bay till reinforcements came up and turned the disaster into a victory . The incidents of this episode were a favourite subject in the sculp- tures of his temples, where their See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation was accompanied by a poetical version of the affair and other explanatory inscrip- tions . Kadesh, however, was not captured, and after further contests, in his twenty-first year Rameses and the Hittite king Khattusil (Kheta-sar) made peace, with a defensive See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance against foreign aggression and See also:

• INTERNAL

internal revolt (see HITTITES) . Thanks to Winckler's discoveries, the cuneiform See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text of this treaty from Boghaz Keui can now be compared with the See also:

• HIERO (strictly HIERON)

hiero- glyphic text at Karnak . In the thirty-fourth year, c . 1250 B.C., Khattusil with his friend or subject the king of Kode came from his distant capital to see the wonders of Egypt in See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person, bringing one of his daughters to be wife of the splendid Pharaoh . Rameses II. paid much attention to the Delta, which had been neglected until the days of Seti I., and resided there constantly; the temple of Tanis must have been greatly enlarged and adorned by him; a colossus of the king placed here was over 90 ft. in height, exceeding in scale even the greatest of the Theban colossi which he had erected in his See also:

• MORTUARY (Med. Lat. mortuarium, from mortuus, dead)

mortuary temple of the Ramesseum . Towards the end of the long reign the vigilance and energy of the old king diminished .

The military spirit awakened in the struggle with the Hyksos had again departed from the Egyptian nation; mercenaries from the Sudan, from Libya and from the northern nations supplied the armies, while foreigners settled in the rich lands of the Delta and harried the coasts . It was a time too when the movements of the nations that so frequently occurred in the ancient world were about to be particularly active . Mineptah, c . 1225 B.C., succeeding his father Rameses II., had to fight many battles for the preservation of. his kingdom and empire . Apparently most of the fighting was finished by the fifth year of his reign; in his mortuary temple at Thebes he set up a stela of that date recording a great victory over the Libyan immigrants and invaders, which rendered the much harried land of Egypt safe . The last lines picture this condition with the crushing of the surrounding tribes . Libya was wasted, the Hittites pacified, See also:

• CANAAN, CANAANITES

Canaan, Ashkelon (See also:

• ASCALON

Ascalon), See also:

• GEZER

Gezer, Yenoam sacked and plundered: " Israel is desolated, his See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed is not, Khor (Palestine) has become a widow (without See also:

• PROTECTOR

protector) for Egypt." The Libyans are accompanied by allies whose names, Sherden, Shekelesh, Ekwesh, Lukku, Teresh, suggest identifications with Sardinians, Sicels, See also:

• ACHAEANS ('AXaioi, Lat. Achivi)

Achaeans, Lycians and Tyrseni or Etruscans . The Sherden had been in the armies of Ramesess II., and are distinguished by their remarkable helmets and apparently See also:

• BODY

body See also:

• ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH (1832-1901)

armour of metal . The Lukku are certainly the same as the Lycians . Probably they were all sea-rovers from the shores and islands of the Mediterranean, who were willing to leave their ships and join the Libyans in raids on the rich lands of Egypt . Mineptah was one of the most unconscionable usurpers of the monuments of his predecessors, including those of his own father, who, it must be admitted, had set him the example . The coarse cutting of his cartouches contrasts with the splendid finish of the Middle Kingdom work which they disfigure .

It may be questioned whether it was due to a See also:

• WAVE

wave of See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm amongst the priests and people, leading them to rededicate the monuments in the name of their deliverer, or a somewhat insane See also:

• DESIRE

desire of the king to perpetuate his own memory in a singularly unfortunate manner . Mineptah, the thirteenth son in the huge family of Rameses, must have been old when he ascended the throne; after his first years of reign his energies gave way, and he was followed by a See also:

• QUICK

quick succession of inglorious rulers, Seti II., the queen Tuosri, Amenmesse, Siptah; the names of the last two were erased from their monuments . A great papyrus written after the death of Rameses III. and recording his gifts to the temples briefly reviews the conditions of these troublous times . " The land of Egypt was in the hands of chiefs and rulers of towns, great and py hasty small slaying each other; afterwards a certain Syrian made himself chief; he made the whole land tributary before him; he united his companions and plundered their See also:

• PROPERTY

property (i.e. of the other chiefs) . They made the gods like men, and no offerings were presented in the temples . But when the gods inclined themselves to peace . . . they established their son Setenkhot (Setnekht) to be ruler of every land." Of the Syrian occupation we know nothing further . Setenkhot, c . 1200 B.C., had a very short reign and was not counted as legitimate, but he established a lasting dynasty (probably by conciliating the priesthood) . He was father of Rameses III., who revived the glories of the empire . The dangers that menaced Egypt now were similar to those which Mineptah had to meet at his See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession . Again the Libyans and the " peoples of the sea " were acting in See also:

• CONCERT (through the French from Lat. con-, with, and certare, to strive)

concert .

The latter now comprised Peleset (the Cretans, ancestors of the See also:

• PHILISTINES

Philistines), Thekel, Shekelesh, Denyen (Danaoi?) and Weshesh; they had invaded Syria from Asiz Minor, reaching the Euphrates, destroying the Hittite cities and progressing southwards, while their ships gathered plunder XIXth Dynasty . from the coasts of the Delta . This fleet joined the Libyan invaders, but was overthrown with heavy loss by the Egyptians, in whose ranks there actually served many Sherden and Kehaka, Sardinian and Libyan mercenaries . Egypt itself was thus clear of enemies; but the chariots and warriors of the Philistines and their associates were advancing through Syria, their families and goods following in ox-carts, and their ships accompanying them along the See also:

• SHORE

shore . Rameses led out his army and fleet against them and struck them so decisive a blow that the migrating swarm submitted to his rule and paid him tribute . In his See also:

• ELEVENTH

eleventh year another Libyan invasion had to be met, and his See also:

• SUZERAINTY

suzerainty in Palestine forcibly asserted . His vigour was equal to all these emergencies and the later years of his reign were spent in peace . Rameses III., however, was not a great ruler . He was possessed by the spirit of decadence, imitative rather than originating . • It is evident that Rameses II. was the See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model to which he endeavoured to conform, and he did not attempt to preserve himself from the weakening influences of priestcraft . To the temples he not only restored the property which had been given to them by former kings, but he also added greatly to their wealth; the Theban Ammon naturally received by far the greatest See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share, more than those of all the other gods together . The land held in the name of different deities is estimated at about 15% of the whole of Egypt; various temples of Ammon owned two-thirds of this, Re of Heliopolis and Ptah of Memphis being the next in wealth .

His palace was at Medinet Habu on the west bank of Thebes in the south quarter; and here he built a great temple to Ammon, adorned with scenes from his victories and richly provided with divine offerings . Although Egypt probably was prosperous on the whole, there was undoubtedly great See also:

• DISTRESS

distress amongst certain portions of the population . We read in a papyrus of a strike of starving labourers in the Theban necropolis who would not work until See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn was given to them, and apparently the government storehouse was empty at the time, perhaps in consequence of a See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad Nile . Shortly before the death of the old king a See also:

• PLOT
• PLOT, ROBERT (164o-1696)

plot in the See also:

• HAREM

harem to assassinate him, and apparently to place one of his sons on the throne, was discovered and its investigation ordered, leading after his death to the condemnation of many high-placed men and See also:

• WOMEN

women . Nine kings of the name of Rameses now followed each other ingloriously in the space of about eighty years to the end of the XXth Dynasty, the power of the high priests of Ammon ever growing at their expense . At this time the Theban necropolis was being more systematically robbed than ever before . Under Rameses IX. an investigation took place which showed that one of the royal tombs before the western cliffs had been completely ransacked and the mummies burnt . Three years later the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings was attacked and the sepulchres of Seti I. and Rameses II. were robbed . The authority of the last king of the XXth Dynasty, Rameses XII., was shadowy . Hrihor, the high priest in his The reign, gradually gathered into his own hands all real Deltaic power, and succeeded him at Thebes, c . 'too B.e., Dynasties; while a prince at Tanis named Smendes (Esbenteti) Libyan founded a separate dynasty in the Delta (Dynasty period . XXI.) .

From this period dates a remarkable papyrus containing the See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report of an See also:

• ENVOY (Fr. envoye, " sent ")

envoy named Unamfin, sent to Syria by Hrihor to obtain cedar See also:

• TIMBER

timber from Byblus . He took with him an See also:

• IMAGE (Lat. imago, perhaps from the same root as imitari, copy, imitate)

image of Ammon to bestow life and See also:

• HEALTH

health on the prince of Byblus, but apparently no other See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision for the See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey or for the negotiations beyond a letter of recommendation to Smendes and a little gold and See also:

• SILVER

silver . Smendes had trading ships in the Phoenician ports, but even his influence was not greater than that of other commercial or pirate centres, while Hrihor was of no See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account except in so far as he might pay well for the cedar wood he required . Unamfin was robbed on the voyage, the prince of Byblus rebuffed him, and when at last the latter agreed to provide the timber it was only in See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange for substantial gifts hastily sent for from Egypt (including rolls of papyrus) and the promise of more to follow . The prince, however, seems to have acknowledged to some extent the divinity of Ammon and the See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt owed by Phoenicia to Egyptian culture, and pitied the many misfortunes of Unamiln . The narrative shows the feebleness of Egypt abroad . The Tanite line of kings generally had the over-lordship of the high priests of Thebes; the descendants of Hrihor, however, sometimes by marriage with princesses of the other line, could assume cartouches and royal titles, and in some cases perhaps ruled the whole of Egypt . Ethiopia may have been ruled with the Thebais, but the records of the time are very scanty . Syria was wholly lost to Egypt . The mummies from the despoiled tombs of the kings were the See also:

• OBJECT

object of much anxious care to the kings of this dynasty; after being removed from one tomb to another, they were finally deposited in a See also:

• SHAFT
• SHAFT (O. Eng., sceaft, from scafan, to shave; the word is common to Teutonic languages)

shaft near the temple of Deir el Bahri, where they remained for nearly three thousand years, until the demand for antiquities at last brought the plunderer once more to their hiding-place; eventually they were all secured for the See also:

• CAIRO
• CAIRO (Arabic Misr-al-Kahira, or simply Misr)

Cairo museum, where they may now be seen . Libyan soldiers had long been employed in the army, and , their military chiefs settled in the large towns and acquired wealth and power, while the native rulers See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew weaker and weaker . The Tanite dynasty may have risen from a Libyan stock, though there is nothing to prove it; the XXIInd Dynasty are clearly from their names of foreign extraction, and their See also:

• GENEALOGY (from the Gr. yivos, family, and Vryos, theory)

genealogy indicates distinctly a Libyan military origin in a family of rulers of Heracleopolis Magna, in Middle Egypt .

Sheshonk (Shishak) I., the founder of the dynasty, c . 950 B.C., seems to have fixed his residence at See also:

• BUBASTIS

Bubastis in the Delta, and his son married the daughter of the last king of the Tanite dynasty .. Heracleopolis seems henceforth for several centuries to have been capital of Middle Egypt, which was considered as a more or less distinct province . Sheshonk secured Thebes, making one of his sons high priest of Ammon, and whereas See also:

• SOLOMON, ODES OF
• SOLOMON, PSALMS OF

Solomon appears to have dealt with a king of Egypt on something like an equal footing, Sheshonk re-established Egyptian rule in Palestine and Nubia, and his expedition in the fifth year of See also:

• REHOBOAM (Heb. re)zab`am, probably " the clan is en-'arged," see Ecclus. xlvii. 23, although on the analogy of Rehabiah and Bab. ra'bi-ilu, `Am may represent some god; Septuagint reads po(3oa,u)

Rehoboam subdued Israel as well as See also:

• JUDAH

Judah, to judge by the list of city names which he inscribed on the See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall of the temple of Karnak . Osorkon I. inherited a prosperous kingdom from his father, but no further progress was made . It required a strong hand to curb the Libyan chieftains, and divisions soon began to show themselves in the kingdom . The XXIInd Dynasty lasted through many generations; but there were See also:

• RIVAL

rival kings, and M . Legrain thinks that he has See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof that the XXIIIrd Dynasty was contemporaneous with the end of the XXIInd . The kings of the XXIIIrd Dynasty had little hold upon the subject princes, who spent the resources of the country in feuds amongst themselves . A native kingdom had meanwhile been established in Ethiopia . Our first knowledge of it is at this moment, when the Ethiopian king Pankhi already held the Thebais . The energetic prince of See also:

• SAIS (Egyptian Sai)

Sais, Tefnakht, followed by most of the princes of the Delta, subdued most of Middle Egypt, and by uniting these forces threatened the Ethiopian border .

Heracleopolis Magna, however, with its See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty king Pefteuaubasti, held out against Tefnakht, and Pankhi coming to its aid not only drove Tefnakht out of Middle Egypt, but also captured Memphis and received the submission of the princes and chiefs; in all these included four " kings " and fourteen other chiefs . According to Diodorus the Ethiopian state was theocratic, ruled through the 1 See also:

• ING

ing by the priests of Ammon . The account is probably exaggerated; but even in Pankhi's record the piety of the king, especially towards Ammon, is very marked . The XXIVth Dynasty consisted of a single Saite king named Bocchoris (Bekerrinf), son of Tefnachthus, apparently the above Tefnakht . Another Ethiopian invader, Shabako (Sabacon), is said to have burnt Bocchoris alive . The p nas yn Ethiopian rule of the XXVth Dynasty was now firmly established, and the resources of the two countries together might have been employed in conquest in Syria and Phoenicia; but at this very time the See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian empire, risen to the highest See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch of military greatness, began to menace Egypt . The Ethiopian could do no more than encourage or support the Syrians in their fight for freedom against See also:

• SARGON

Sargon and See also:

• SENNACHERIB (Ass. Sin-akhi-erba, " the Moon-god has increased the brethren ")

Sennacherib . Shabako was followed by Shebitku and Shebitku by Tirhaka (Tahrak, Taracos) . Tirhaka was energetic in opposing the Assyrian advance, but in 67o B.C . Esarhaddon defeated his army on the border of Egypt, captured Memphis with the royal* harem and took great spoil . The Egyptian resistance to the Assyrians was probably only half-hearted; in the north especially there must have been a strong party against the Ethiopian rule . Tirhaka laboured to propitiate the north country, and probably rendered the Ethiopian rule acceptable throughout Egypt .

Notwithstanding, the Assyrian king entrusted the government and collection of tribute to the native chiefs; twenty princes in all are enumerated in the records, including one Assyrian to hold the See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key of Egypt at See also:

• PELUSIUM

Pelusium . Scarcely had Esarhaddon withdrawn before Tirhaka returned from his See also:

• REFUGE

refuge in the south and the Assyrian garrisons were massacred . Esarhaddon promptly prepared a second expedition, but died on the way to Egypt in 668 B.c.; his son See also:

• ASSUR
• ASSUR (Auth. Vera. Asshur)

Assur-bani-See also:

• PAL, KRISTO DAS (1839–1884)

pal sent it forward, routed Tirhaka and reinstated the See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors . At the head of these was Necho (Niku), king of Sais and Memphis, father of See also:

• PSAMMETICHUS (Egypt. Psammetk)

Psammetichus, the founder of the XXVIth Dynasty . We next hear that See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence with Tirhaka was intercepted, and that Necho, together with Pekrur of Psapt (at the entrance to the Wadi Tumilat) and the Assyrian See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor of Pelusium, was taken to See also:

• NINEVEH (Heb. m}'?, in classical authors Nivos, Ninus; LXX. Ntsetni, Nnveun: Assyrian Nind or Ninua)

Nineveh in chains to See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer the See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of See also:

• TREASON (Fr. trahison, Lat. traditio)

treason . Whatever may have occurred, it was deemed politic to send Necho back loaded with honours and surrounded by a See also:

• RETINUE (O. Fr. retenue, from retenir, Lat. retenere, hold back, retain)

retinue of Assyrian officials . Upper Egypt, however, was loyal to Tirhaka, and even at Memphis the See also:

• BURIAL

burial of an See also:

• APIS

Apis See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

bull was dated by the priests as in his reign . Immediately afterwards he died . His nephew Tandamane, received by the Upper country with acclamations, besieged and captured Memphis, Necho being probably slain in the encounter . But in 661 (?) Assur-bani-pal drove the Ethiopian out of Lower Egypt, pursued him up the Nile and sacked Thebes . This was the last and most tremendous visitation of the Assyrian See also:

• SCOURGE (Ital. scoriada, from Lat. excoriare, to flay, corium, skin)

scourge . Psammetichus (Psammetk), 664–6ro B.C., the son of Necho, succeeded his father as a See also:

• VASSAL (Fr. vassal, vassaut, vassault, &c,)

vassal of Assyria in his possessions of xxvith Memphis and Sais, allied himself with See also:

• GYGES

Gyges, king of Dynasty .

See also:

• LYDIA

Lydia, and aided by Ionian and Carian mercenaries, extended and consolidated his power.' By the ninth year of his reign he was in full See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of Thebes . Assurbani-pal's energies throughout this crisis were entirely occupied with revolts nearer home, in Babylon, See also:

• ELAM

Elam and See also:

• ARABIA

Arabia . The Assyrian arms again triumphed everywhere, but at the cost of complete exhaustion . Under the firm and See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise rule of Psammetichus, Egypt recovered its prosperity after the terrible losses inflicted by internal wars and the See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade of Assyrian invasions . The See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue went up by leaps and See also:

• BOUNDS, BEATING THE

bounds . Psammetichus guarded the frontiers of Egypt with three strong garrisons, placing the Ionian and Carian mercenaries especially at the Pelusiac See also:

• DAPHNAE (Tahpanhes, Taphne; mod. Defenneh)

Daphnae in' the N.E., from which quarter the most formidable enemy was likely to appear . The Assyrians did not move against him, but a great Scythian See also:

• HORDE

horde, destroying all before it in its southward advance, is said by See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus to have been turned back by presents and entreaties . See also:

• DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic)

Diplomacy backed up by vigorous preparations may have deterred the Scythians from the dangerous enterprise of See also:

• CROSSING

crossing the desert to Egypt . Before his death Psammetichus had advanced into southern Palestine and captured See also:

• AZOTUS

Azotus . When Psammetichus began to reign the situation of Egypt was very different from what it had been under the Empire . The development of See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade in the Mediterranean and contact with new peoples and new civilizations in peace and war had given See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth to new ideas among the Egyptians and at the same time to a loss of confidence in their own powers . The Theban supremacy was gone and the Delta was now the wealthy and progressive part of Egypt; piety increased amongst the masses, unenterprising and unwarlike, but proud of their illustrious antiquity .

Thebes and Ammon and the traditions of the Empire savoured too much now of the Ethiopian; the priests oft the Memphite and Deltaic dynasty thereupon turned deliberately ' This, it may be remarked, is the time vaguely represented by the Dodecarchy of Herodotus.for their See also:

• MODELS

models to the times of the ancient supremacy of Memphis, and the sculptures and texts on tomb and temple had to conform as closely as possible to those of the Old Kingdom . In other than religious matters, however, the Egyptians were inventing and perhaps borrowing . To enumerate a few examples of this which are already definitely known: we find that the forms of legal and business documents became more precise; the See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical arts of casting in bronze on a core and of moulding figures and pottery were brought to the highest pitch of excellence; and See also:

• PORTRAITURE

portraiture in the round on its highest See also:

• PLANE

plane was better than ever before and admirably lifelike, revealing careful study of the See also:

• EXTERNAL

external See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

anatomy of the individual . Psammetichus died in the fifty-fourth year of his reign and was succeeded by his son Necho, 610–594 B.C . Taking See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of the helpless state of the Assyrians, whose capital was assailed by the Medes and the Babylonians, the new Pharaoh prepared an expedition to recover the ancient possessions of the Empire in Syria . See also:

• JOSIAH (Heb. yo' shiyydhu, perhaps " Yah [weh] supports ")

Josiah alone, faithful to the king of Assyria, opposed him with his feeble force at Megiddo and was easily overcome and slain . Necho went forward to the Euphrates, put the land to tribute, and, in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of Judah at any rate, filled the throne with his own nominee (see See also:

• JEHOIAKIM (Heb. " Yahweh] raiseth up ")

JEHOIAKIM) . The fall of Nineveh and the See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of the spoil gave to Nabopolasser, king of Babylon, the See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance of the Assyrians in the west, and he at once despatched his son See also:

• NEBUCHADREZZAR, or NEBUCHADNEZZAR

Nebuchadrezzar to fight Necho . The Babylonian and Egyptian forces met at Carchemish (605), and the rout of the latter was so complete that Necho relinquished Syria and might have lost Egypt as well had not the death of Nabopolasser recalled the See also:

• VICTOR
• VICTOR, GAIUS JULIUS (4th cent. A.D.)
• VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS

victor to Babylon . Herodotus relates that in Necho's reign a Phoenician See also:

• SHIP

ship despatched from Egypt actually circumnavigated See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, and the attempt was made to complete a See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal through the Wadi Tumilat, which connected the Mediterranean and Red Seas by way of the Lower Egyptian Nile . (See See also:

• SUEZ

SuEZ.) The next king, Psammetichus II., 594–589 B.C., according to one account made an expedition to Syria or Phoenicia, and apparently sent a See also:

• MERCENARY (Lat. mercenarius, from merces, reward, gain)

mercenary force into Ethiopia as far as Abu Simbel . Pharaoh Hophra (See also:

• APRIES ('Aapcns)

Apries), 589–570 B.C., fomented See also:

• REBELLION

rebellion against the Babylonian suzerainty in Judah, but accomplished little there .

Herodotus, however, describes his reign as exceedingly prosperous . The mercenary troops at Elephantine mutinied and attempted to desert to Ethiopia, but were brought back and punished . Later, however, a disastrous expedition sent to aid the Libyans against the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony of See also:

• CYRENE [mod. Ain Shahat-Grenna]

Cyrene roused the suspicion and anger of the native soldiery at favours shown to the mercenaries, who of course had taken no part in it . Amasis (Ahmosi) II. was chosen king by the former (570—525 B.C.), and his swarm of adherents overcame the Greek troops in Apries' pay (see AMASrs) . None the less Amasis employed Greeks in numbers, and cultivated the friend-ship of their tyrants . His rule was confined to Egypt (and perhaps Cyprus), but Egypt itself was very prosperous . At the beginning of his long reign of forty-four years he was threatened by Nebuchadrezzar; later he joined the See also:

• LEAGUE

league against See also:

• CYRUS
• CYRUS (Gr. KDpos; Pers. Kuru-sh; Babyl. Kurash; Hebr. Koresh)

Cyrus and saw with alarm the fall of his old enemy . A few months after his death, 525 B.C., the invading See also:

• HOST

host of the Persians led by See also:

• CAMBYSES (528-521)
• CAMBYSES (Pers. Kambujiya)

Cambyses reached Egypt and dethroned his son Psammetichus III . Cambyses at first conciliated the Egyptians and respected their religion; but, perhaps after the failure of his expedition into Ethiopia, he entirely changed his policy, and his The memory was generally execrated . He left Egypt so Persian completely crushed that the subsequent usurpation period, of the Persian throne was marked by no revolt in that vynastyxxvnth quarter . See also:

• DARIUS (Pers. Darayavaush; Old Test. Daryavesh)

Darius, 521–486 B.C., proved himself a beneficent ruler, and in a visit to Egypt displayed his See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration for the religion of the country . In the Great See also:

• OASIS (Gr. &toss, the name given by Herodotus to the fertile spots in the Libyan desert: it probably represents an Egyptian word, cf. Coptic ouahe, ouih, to dwell, from which the Egyptian Arabic sod is derived)

Oasis he built a temple to Ammon .

The annual tribute imposed on the satrapy of Egypt and Cyrene was heavy, but it was probably raised with ease . The canal from the Nile to the Red Sea was completed or repaired, and See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce flourished . Documents dated in the thirty-fourth and thirty-fifth years of Darius are not uncommon, but apparently at the very end of his reign, some years after the disaster of See also:

• MARATHON

Marathon, Egypt was induced to See also:

• REBEL, JOHANN PETER (176o-1826)

rebel . See also:

• XERXES (the Greek form of the Pers. Khshayarsha; Old Testament Ahasverus, Akhashverosh—i.e. Ahasuerus (q.v.)—with wrong vocalization and substitution of y for v, instead of Akhshavarsh; in Aramaic inscriptions and papyri from Egypt the name is written Khs

Xerxes, 486–467 B.C., who put down the revolt with severity, and his successor See also:

• ARTAXERXES

Artaxerxes, 466–425 B.C., like Cambyses, were hateful to the Egyptians . The disorders which marked the accession of Artaxerxes gave Egypt another opportunity to rebel . Their leaders were Inaros the Libyan of Marea and the Egyptian Amyrtaeus . Aided by an Athenian force, Inaros slew the See also:

• SATRAP [Pers. Khshatrapavan, i.e." protector (superintendent) of the country (or district)," Heb. sakhshadrapan, Gr. taerpan-ris (insc. of Miletus, Sitzungsber. Berl. Ak. 1900, 112), E% u3pa7eixav (insc. of Mylasa, Dittenberger, Sylloge, 95), ital. p6. rr

satrap See also:

• ACHAEMENES (HAKHAMANI)

Achaemenes at the battle of Papremis and destroyed his army; but the See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison of Memphis held out, and a fresh host from See also:

• PERSIA

Persia raised the siege and in turn besieged the Greek and Egyptian forces on the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of Papremis . At last, after two years, having diverted the river from its channel, they captured and burnt the Athenian ships and quickly ended the rebellion . The reigns of Xerxes II. and Darius II. are marked by no recorded incident in Egypt until a successful revolt about 405 B.C. interrupted the Persian domination . Monuments of the Persian rule in Egypt are exceedingly scanty . The inscriptions of Pefteuauneit, priest of See also:

• NEITH

Neith at Sais, and from his position the native authority who was most likely to be consulted by, Cambyses and Darius, tells of his relations with these two kings . For the following reigns Egyptian documents hardly exist, but some papyri written in Aramaic have been found at Elephantine and at Memphis .

Those from the former locality show that a colony of See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews with a temple dedicated to Yahweh (See also:

• JEHOVAH (YAHWEH2)

Jehovah) had established themselves at that garrison and trading See also:

• POST

post (see See also:

• ASSUAN

AssuAN) . Herodotus visited Egypt in the reign of Artaxerxes, about 440 B.C . His description of Egypt, partly founded on Hecataeus, who had been there about fifty years earlier, is the chief source of See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information for the history of the Saite kings and for the See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners of the times, but his statements prove to be far from correct when they can be checked by the scanty native evidence . (F . LL . G.) Amyrtaeus (Amnertais) of Sais, perhaps a son of Pausiris and See also:

• GRANDSON (Ger. Grandsee)

grandson of the earlier Amyrtaeus, revolted from Darius II . C . 405 B.C., and Egypt regained its independence for Dynasties about sixty years . The next king Nefeuret xxvita- xxxi . (Nepherites I.) was a Mendesian and founded the XXIXth Dynasty . After Hakor and Nefeuret II. the See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty passed to Dynasty XXX., the last native Egyptian line . Monuments of all these kings are known, and art flourished particularly under the MendesiankingsNekhtharheb (Nectanebes or Nectanebus I.) and Nekhtnebf (Nectanebes II.) .

The former came to the throne when a Persian invasion was imminent, 378 B.C . Hakor had already formed a powerful army, largely composed of Greek mercenaries . This army Nekhtharheb entrusted to the Athenian See also:

• CHABRIAS (4th century B.C.)

Chabrias . The Persians, however, succeeded in causing his recall and in gaining the services of his See also:

• FELLOW

fellow-countryman See also:

• IPHICRATES

Iphicrates . The invading army consisted of 200,000 barbarians under See also:

• PHARNABAZUS

Pharnabazus and 20,000 Greeks under Iphicrates . After the Egyptians had experienced a See also:

• REVERSE

reverse, Iphicrates counselled an immediate advance on Memphis . His See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice was not followed by Pharnabazus; the Egyptian king collected his forces and won a pitched battle near Mendes . Pharnabazus retreated and Egypt was See also:

• FREE

free . Nekhtharheb was succeeded by Tachos or Teos, whose short reign was occupied by a war with Persia, in which the king of Egypt secured the services of a body of Greek mercenaries under the Spartan king Agesilaus and a fleet under the Athenian general Chabrias . He entered Phoenicia with every prospect of success, but having offended Agesilaus he was dethroned in a military revolt which gave the See also:

• CROWN

crown to Nekhtnebf or Nectanebes II., the last native king of Egypt . At this moment a revolt See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out . The prince of Mendes almost succeeded in overthrowing the new king .

Agesilaus defeated the rival pretender and left Nekhtnebf established on the throne . But the opportunity of a decisive blow against Persia was lost . The new king, Artaxerxes III . Ochus, determined to reduce Egypt . A first expedition was defeated by the Greek mercenaries of Nekhtnebf, but a second, commanded by Ochus himself, subdued Egypt with no further resistance than that of the Greek garrison of Pelusium . Nekhtnebf, instead of endeavouring to relieve them, retreated to Memphis and fled thence to Ethiopia, 340 (?) B.C . Thus miserably fell the See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy of the Pharaohs, after an unexampled duration of 3000 years, or as some think far longer . 6'1VIore than 2000 years have since passed, and though Egypt has from time to time been independent, not one native prince has sat on the throne of the Pharaohs . " There shall be no more a prince of the land of Egypt " (Ezek. xxx . 13) was prophesied in the days of Apries as the final state of the land . Ochus treated his conquest barbarously . From this brief re-See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of Persian dominion (counted by Manetho as Dynasty XXXI.) no document survives except one papyrus that appears to be dated in the reign of Darius III .

See J . H . Breasted, A History of Egypt from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest (New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York and London, 19o5) ; A History of the Ancient Egyptians (New York and London, 5908) ; Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian Conquest, collected, edited and translated (g vols., Chicago, 5906—5907) ; W . M . F . Petrie, A History of Egypt (from the earliest times to the XXXth Dynasty) (3 vols., London, 5899—5905); E . A . W . Budge, A History of Egypt, vols. i-vii . (London, 5902) ; G . Maspero, Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'orient (6th ed., 5904), The See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

Dawn of Civilization, The Struggle of the Nations, The Passing of the Empires (London, 5904, &c.) ; P . E .

See also:

• NEWBERRY, JOHN STRONG (1822-1892)

Newberry and J . Garstang, A Short History of Ancient Egypt (London, 19o4); G . Steindorff, Die Bliitezeit des Pharaonenreiches (Dyn . X VIII.) (See also:

• BIELEFELD

Bielefeld and Leipzig, 5900) ; H . Winckler, The Tell el Amarna Letters (Berlin, London and New York, 5896) . The Conquest by Alexander.—When, in 332 B.C., after the battle of Issus, Alexander entered Egypt, he was welcomed as a deliverer . The Persian governor had not forces enough to oppose him, and he nowhere experienced even the show of resistance . He visited Memphis, founded See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria, and went on See also:

• PILGRIMAGE (Fr. pelerinage, Lat. peregrinatio)

pilgrimage to the See also:

• ORACLE (Lat. oraculum, from ora' to pray; the corresponding Greek word is uavreiov or Xpnuri7pwov)

oracle of Ammon (Oasis of See also:

• SIWA

Siwa) . The god declared him to be his son, renewing thus an old Egyptian See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

convention or belief; See also:

• OLYMPIAS

Olympias was supposed to have been in converse with Ammon, even as the mothers of Hatshepsut and Amenophis III. are represented in the inscriptions of the Theban temples to have received the divine essence . At this See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of his career the treasure and tribute of Egypt were of great importance to the Macedonian conqueror . He conciliated the inhabitants by the respect which he showed for their religion; he organized the government of the natives under two See also:

• OFFICERS

officers, who must have been already known to them (of these Petisis, an Egyptian, soon resigned his share into the charge of his colleague Doloaspis, who bears a Persian name.) But Alexander designed his Greek See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of Alexandria to be the capital, and entrusted the See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation of Egypt and the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of its army and See also:

• NAVY

navy to Greeks . Early in 331 B.C. he was ready to depart, and led his forces away to Phoenicia .

A granite gateway to the temple of See also:

• KHNUM

Khnum at Elephantine bears his name in hieroglyphic, and See also:

• DEMOTIC (Gr. Srlµorucos, of or belonging to the people)

demotic documents are found dated in his reign . The Ptolemaic Period.—On the division of Alexander's dominions in 325 B.C., Egypt fell to See also:

• PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS)

Ptolemy the son of Lagus, the founder of the . Ptolemaic dynasty (see See also:

• PTOLEMIES

PTOLEMIES) . Under these rulers the rich kingdom was heavily taxed to See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply the sinews of war and to support every kind of lavish See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure . Officials, and the higher ones were nearly all Greeks, were See also:

• LEGION (Lat. legio)

legion, but the whole See also:

• SYSTEM

system was so judiciously worked that there was little discontent amongst the patient peasantry . During the reign of Philadelphus the land gained from the See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed of the lake of Moeris was assigned to See also:

• VETERAN

veteran soldiers; the great armies of the Ptolemies were rewarded or supported by grants of See also:

• FARM

farm lands, and men of Macedonian, Greek and Hellenistic extraction were planted in colonies and garrisons or settled themselves in the villages throughout the country . Upper Egypt, farthest from the centre of government, was probably least affected by the new influences, though the first Ptolemy established the Greek colony of Ptolemais to be its capital . Intermarriages, however, gradually had their effect; after the revolt of the natives in the reign of Ptolemy V., we find the Greek and Egyptian elements closely intermingled . Ptolemy I. had established the cult of the Memphite See also:

• SERAPIS

Serapis in a Graeco-Egyptian form, affording a See also:

• COMMON

common ground for native and Hellenistic worshippers . The greater number of the temples to the native deities in Upper Egypt and in Nubia (to 5o m. south of the Cataract, within the Dodecaschoenus) were built under the Ptolemies . No serious effort was made to extend the Ptolemaic rule into Ethiopia, and Ergamenes, the Hellenizing king of Ethiopia, was evidently in alliance with Philopator; in the next reign two native kings, probably supported by Ethiopia, reigned in succession at Thebes . That famous city lost all except its religious importance under the Ptolemies; after the " destruction " or dismantling by Lathyrus it formed only a series of villages .

The population of Egypt in the time of Ptolemy I. is put at 7,000,000 by Diodorus, who also says that it was greater then than it ever was before; at the end of the dynasty, in his own day, it was not much less though somewhat diminished . Civil wars and revolts must have greatly injured both Upper and Lower Egypt . It is remarkable that, while the See also:

• BUILDING

building and decoration of temples continued in the reigns of Ptolemy Auletes and the later Ptolemies and See also:

• CLEOPATRA

Cleopatra, papyri of those times whether Greek or Egyptian are scarcely to be found . The Roman Period.—In 30 B.C . See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus took Egypt as the See also:

• PRIZE, or PRIZE OF WAR (Fr. prise, from prendre, to take)

prize of conquest . He treated it as a part of his personal domain, free from any interference by the See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate . In the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main lines the' Ptolemaic organization was preserved, but See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans were gradually introduced into the highest offices . On Egypt See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome depended for its supplies of corn; entrenched there, a revolting general would be difficult to attack, and by simply holding back the See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain ships could threaten Rome with See also:

• STARVATION

starvation . No senator therefore was permitted to take See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office or even to set See also:

• FOOT

foot in the country without the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor's special leave, and by way of pre-caution the highest position, that of See also:

• PREFECT (prefet)

prefect, was filled by a Roman of equestrian See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank only . As the representative of the emperor, this officer assumed the place occupied by the king under the old order, except that his power was limited by the right of See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar . The first prefect, See also:

• CORNELIUS
• CORNELIUS, CARL AUGUST PETER (1824-1874)
• CORNELIUS, PETER VON (1784–1867)

Cornelius See also:

• GALLUS, C
• GALLUS, CORNELIUS (c. 70-26 B.C.)
• GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS
• GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS
• GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS

Gallus, tamed the natives of Upper Egypt to the new yoke by force of arms, and See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting ambassadors from Ethiopia at See also:

• PHILAE

Philae, established a nominal See also:

• PROTECTORATE

protectorate of Rome over the frontier See also:

• DISTRICT

district, which had been abandoned by the later Ptolemies . The third prefect, See also:

• GAIUS

Gaius See also:

• PETRONIUS (G. (?)1

Petronius, cleared the neglected canals for See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation; he also repelled an invasion of the Ethiopians and pursued them far up the Nile, finally storming the capital of Napata .

But no attempt was made to hold Ethiopia . In succeeding reigns much trouble was caused by jealousies and quarrels between the Greeks and the Jews, to whom Augustus had granted privileges as valuable as those accorded to the Greeks . Aiming at the spice trade, Aelius Gallus, the second prefect of Egypt under Augustus, had made an unsuccessful expedition to conquer Arabia See also:

• FELIX
• FELIX, ANTONIUS
• FELIX, LIA (1830– )

Felix; the valuable See also:

• INDIAN

Indian trade, however, was secured by See also:

• CLAUDIUS
• CLAUDIUS [TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO GERMANICUS]
• CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS
• CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS (174o-1815)

Claudius for Egypt at the expense of Arabia, and the Red Sea routes were improved . See also:

• NERO (37-68)

Nero's reign especially marks the commencement of an era of prosperity which lasted about a century . Under See also:

• VESPASIAN

Vespasian the Jewish temple at Leontopolls in the Delta, which Onias had founded in the reign of Ptolemy Philometor, was closed; worse still, a great Jewish revolt and See also:

• MASSACRE

massacre of the Greeks in the reign of See also:

• TRAJAN [MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS] (A. D. 53-117)

Trajan resulted, after a stubborn conflict of many months with the Roman army under Marcius Livianus Turbo, in the virtual extermination of the Jews in Alexandria and the loss of all their privileges . See also:

• HADRIAN (PUBLICS AELIUS HADRIANUS)

Hadrian, who twice visited Egypt (A.D . 130, 134), founded Antinoe in memory of his drowned favourite . From this reign onwards buildings in the Graeco-Roman style were erected throughout the country . A new Sothic See also:

• CYCLE
• CYCLE (Gr. KUK)^os, a circle)

cycle began in A.D . 139 . Under See also:

• MARCUS

Marcus Aurelius a revolt of the Bucolic or native troops recruited for home service was taken up by the whole of the native population and was suppressed only after several years of fighting . The Bucolic war caused See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

infinite damage to the See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture of the country and marks the beginning of its rapid decline under a burdensome taxation .

The province of Africa was now of equal importance with Egypt for the grain supply of the capital . Avidius See also:

• CASSIUS
• CASSIUS, AVIDIUS (d. A.D. 175)
• CASSIUS, GAIUS

Cassius, who led the Roman forces in the war, usurped the See also:

• PURPLE

purple, and was acknowledged by the armies of Syria and Egypt . On the approach of Marcus Aurelius, the adherents of Cassius slew him, and the clemency of the emperor restored peace . After the downfall of the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house of the Antonines, Pescennius See also:

• NIGER
• NIGER, GAIUS PESCENNIUS

Niger, who commanded the forces in Egypt, was proclaimed emperor on the death of See also:

• PERTINAX, PUBLIUS HELVIUS (A.D. 126-193)

Pertinax (A.D . 193) . See also:

• SEVERUS
• SEVERUS, SULPICIUS (c. 363–c. 425)

Severus overthrew his rival (A.D . 194) and, the revolt having been a military one, did not punish the province; in 202 he gave a constitution to Alexandria and the nome capitals . In his reign the Christians of Egypt suffered the first of their many persecutions . When See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity was planted in the country we do not know, but it must very early have gained adherents among the learned Jews of Alexandria, whose school of thought was in some respects ready to welcome it . From them See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian-Ity. it rapidly passed to the Greeks . Ultimately the new religion spread to the Egyptians; their own creed was worn out, and they found in Christianity a See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of the future life for which their old belief had made them not unready; while the social teaching of Christianity came with special fitness to a subject See also:

• RACE

race . The history of the Coptic Version has yet to be written .

It presents some features of great antiquity, and, unlike all others, has the truly popular character of being written in the three dialects of the See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language . Side by side there grew up an Alexandrian See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church, philosophic, disputative, ambitious, the very centre of Christian learning, and an Egyptian church, ascetic, contemplative, mystical . The two at length influenced one another; still we can generally trace the philosophic teachers to a Greek origin, the mystics to an Egyptian . See also:

• CARACALLA (or CARACALLUS), MARCUS A U R E L I U S ANTONINUS (186-217)

Caracalla, in revenge for an affront, massacred all the men capable of bearing arms in Alexandria . His granting of the Roman citizenship to all Egyptians in common with the other provincials was only to extort more taxes . Under See also:

• DECIUS, GAIUS MESSIUS QUINTUS TRAJANUS (2017-251)

Decius, A.D . 250, the Christians again suffered from persecution . When the empire broke up in the weak reign of See also:

• GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS LICINIUS EGNATIUS

Gallienus, the prefect Aemilianus, who took the surname Alexander or Alexandrinus, was made emperor by the troops at Alexandria, but was conquered by the forces of Gallienus . In his brief reign of only a few months he had driven back an invasion of the Blemmyes . This predatory tribe, issuing from Nubia, was long to be' the terror of Upper Egypt . See also:

• ZENOBIA (Gr. Zr7vo(3ia)

Zenobia, queen of See also:

• PALMYRA

Palmyra, after an unsuccessful invasion, on a second attempt conquered Egypt, which she added to her empire, but lost it when See also:

• AURELIAN [Lucius DoMITIus AURELIANUS]

Aurelian made war upon her (A.D . 272) .

The province was, however, unsettled, and the conquest of Palmyra was followed in the same year by the suppression of a revolt in Egypt (A.D . 273) . See also:

• PROBUS, MARCUS AURELIUS
• PROBUS, MARCUS VALERIUS

Probus, who had governed Egypt for Aurelian and See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus, was subsequently chosen by the troops to succeed Tacitus, and is the first governor of this province who obtained the whole of the empire . He expelled the Blemmyes, who were dominating the whole of the Thebaid . See also:

• DIOCLETIAN (GAIUs AURELIUS VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS) (A.D. 245–313)
• DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF (De Pretiis rerum venalium)

Diocletian invited the Nobatae to See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle in the Dodecaschoenus as a barrier against their incursions, and subsidized both Blemmyes and Nobatae . The country, however, was still disturbed, and in A.D . 296 a formidable revolt broke out, led by Achilleus, who as emperor took the name Domitius Domitianus . Diocletian, finding his troops unable to determine the struggle, came to Egypt, captured Alexandria and put his rival to death (296) . He then reorganized the whole province, and the well-known " See also:

• POMPEY

Pompey's See also:

• PILLAR (0. Fr. piler, Mod. pilier, Late Lat. pilare, from pila, column)

Pillar " was set up by the grateful and repentant Alexandrians to commemorate his See also:

• GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. die Gift, gift, das Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf. Dutch geven, Ger. geben; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence)

gift to them of part of the corn tribute . The Coptic era of Diocletian or of the Martyrs dates from the accession of Diocletian (A.D . 284) . The See also:

• EDICT (Lat. edictum, from e, out, and dicere, to say, speak)

edict of A.D .

303 against the Christians, and those which succeeded it, were rigorously carried out in Egypt, where Paganism was still strong and See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face to face with a strong and united church . See also:

• GALERIUS [GALERIUS VALERIUS MAXIMIANUS]

Galerius, who succeeded Diocletian in the government of the East, implacably pursued his policy, and this great persecution did not end until the persecutor, perishing, it is said, of the dire malady of See also:

• HEROD
• HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT)

Herod and See also:

• PHILIP
• PHILIP (Gr.'FiXtrsro , fond of horses, from dn)^eiv, to love, and limos, horse; Lat. Philip pus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes, Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr. Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe)
• PHILIP, JOHN (1775-1851)
• PHILIP, KING (c. 1639-1676)
• PHILIP, LANOGRAVE OF HESSE (1504-1567)

Philip II. of See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, sent out an edict of See also:

• TOLERATION (from Lat. tolerare, to endure)

toleration (A.D . 311) . By the edict of See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan (A.D . 313), See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine, with the agree. ment of his colleague See also:

• LICINIUS

Licinius, acknowledged Christianity a, having at least equal rights with other religions, and when he gained See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole power he wrote to all his subjects advising them, like him, to become Christians (A.D . 324) . The Egyptian Church, hitherto free from See also:

• SCHISM

schism, was now divided by a fierce controversy, in which we see two Greek parties, rather than a Greek and an Egyptian, in conflict . The See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council of See also:

• NICAEA, COUNCIL OF
• NICAEA, or NICE

Nicaea was called together (A.D . 325) to determine between the Orthodox and the party of the Alexandrian See also:

• PRESBYTER (Gr. apactObTepos, elder, the comparative of IrOo-Oas, an old man)

presbyter See also:

• ARIUS ("Apews)

Arius . At that council the native Egyptian bishops were chiefly remarkable for their manly protest against enforcing See also:

• CELIBACY (Lat. caelibatus, from caelebs, unmarried)

celibacy on the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy . The most conspicuous controversialist on the Orthodox side was the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young Alexandrian See also:

• DEACON (Gr. S&& ovos, minister, servant)

deacon See also:

• ATHANASIUS (293-373)

Athanasius, who returned home to be made See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

archbishop of Alexandria (A.D . 326) .

After being four times expelled by the Arians, and once by the emperor See also:

• JULIAN (FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS) (331-363)

Julian, he died, A.D . 373, at the moment when an Arian persecution began . So large a proportion of the population had taken religious vows that under See also:

• VALENS

Valens it became necessary to abolish the See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege of monks which exempted them from military service . The reign of See also:

• THEODOSIUS

Theodosius I. witnessed the overthrow of Arianism, and this was followed by the suppression of See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

Pagan-ism, against which a final edict was promulgated A.D . 390 . In Egypt, the year before, the temple of Serapis at Alexandria had been captured after much bloodshed by the Christian See also:

• MOB

mob and turned into a church . Generally the Coptic Christians were content to build their churches within the ancient temples, plastering over or effacing the sculptures which were nearest to the ground and in the way of the worshippers . They do not seem to have been very zealous in the work of destruction; the native religion was already dead and they had no fear of it . The prosperity of the church was the sign of its decay, and before long we find persecution and injustice disgracing the seat of Athanasius . See also:

• CYRIL (376-444)
• CYRIL (827-869)
• CYRIL (c. 315–386)

Cyril, the See also:

• PATRIARCH (M.E. and O. Fr. patriarche, Lat. patriarcha, Gr. aarpuipxtis, from srarptu., clan, and apxil, rule)

patriarch of Alexandria (A.D . 415), expelled the Jews from the capital with the aid of the mob, and by the See also:

• MURDER

murder of the beautiful philosopher See also:

• HYPATIA ('Tiraria) (c. A.D. 370–415)

Hypatia marked the lowest See also:

• DEPTH

depth to which ignorant fanaticism could descend . A schism now produced lengthened civil war and alienated Egypt from the empire .

The distinction between religion and politics seemed to be lost, and the government grew weaker and weaker . The system of local government by citizens had now entirely disappeared . Offices, with new See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine names, were now almost hereditary in the wealthy land-owning families . The Greek rulers of the Orthodox faith were unable to protect the tillers of the See also:

• SOIL

soil, and these being of the Monophysite persuasion and having their own church and patriarch, hated the Orthodox patriarch (who from the time of Justinian onwards was identical with the prefect) and all his following . Towards the middle of the 5th century, the Blemmyes, quiet since the reign of Diocletian, recommenced their incursions, and were even joined in them by the Nobatae . These tribes were twice brought to account severely for their misdoings, but not effectually checked . It was in these circumstances that Egypt fell without a conflict when attacked by See also:

• CHOSROES

Chosroes (A.D . 616) . After ten years of Persian dominion the success of See also:

• HERACLIUS ('HpaeXaos) (c. 575-642)

Heraclius restored Egypt to the empire, and for a time it again received a Greek governor . The See also:

• MONOPHYSITES (Gr. ,uovocva"erat)

Monophysites, who had taken advantage of the Persian occupation, were persecuted and their patriarch expelled . The Arab conquest was welcomed by the native Christians, but with it they ceased to be the Egyptian nation . Their language is still used in their churches, but it is no longer spoken, and its literature, which is wholly ecclesiastical, has been long unproductive .

The decline of Egypt was due to the purely military government of the Romans, and their subsequent alliance with the Greek party of Alexandria, which never represented the country . Under weak emperors, the rest of Egypt was exposed to the inroads of savages, and left to fall into a condition of barbarism . Ecclesiastical disputes tended to alienate both the native population and the Alexandrians . Thus at last the country was merely held by armed force, and the authority of the governor was little recognized beyond the capital, except where garrisons were stationed . There was no military spirit in a population unused to arms, nor any disinclination to be relieved from an arbitrary and persecuting rule . Thus the Moslem conquest was easy . (R . S . P.; F . LL . G.) 2 . See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan Period .

(I) Moslem Conquest of Egypt.—In accordance with the scheme of universal conquest conceived by the founder of See also:

• ISLAM

Islam, an army of some 4000 men was towards the end of the year A.D . 639 sent against Egypt under the command of `Amr (see `AMR-IBNEL-See also:

• ASS (O.E. assa; Lat. asinus)
• ASS, FEAST OF THE

Ass), by the second See also:

• CALIPH, CALIF

caliph, See also:

• OMAR (c. 581-644)

Omar I., who had some doubt as to the expediency of the enterprise . The See also:

• COMMANDER

commander marched from Syria through El-'Arish, easily took Farama or Pelusium, and thence proceeded to See also:

• BILBEIS, or BELBES

Bilbeis, where he was delayed for a See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month; having captured this place, he proceeded to a point on the Nile called Umm Dunain, the siege of which also occasioned him some difficulty . After taking it, he crossed the Nile to the Fayum . On the 6th of See also:

• JUNE

June of the following year (64o) a second army of 12,000 men, despatched by Omar, arrived at Heliopolis (On) . `Amr recrossed the river and joined it, but presently was confronted by a Roman army, which he defeated at the battle of Heliopolis (See also:

• JULY

July 64o) ; this victory was followed by the siege of Babylon, which after some futile attempts at negotiation was taken partly by See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

storm and partly by See also:

• CAPITULATION (Lat. capitulum, a little head or division; capitulare, to treat upon terms)

capitulation on Good See also:

• FRIDAY (A.S. frige-dreg, fr. frige, gen. of frigu, love, or the goddess of love—the Norse Frigg,—the dreg, day; cf. Icelandic frjddagr, O.H. Ger. friatag, frigatag, mod. Ger. Freitag)

Friday, the 6th of See also:

• APRIL

April 641 . `Amr next proceeded in the direction of Alexandria, which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on the 8th of See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 641, under which it was to be occupied by the Moslems on the 29th of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September of the following year . The See also:

• INTERVAL

interval was spent by him in See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding the city Fostat (Fustat), near the See also:

• MODERN

modern Cairo, and called after the See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp (Fossatum) occupied by him while besieging Babylon; and in reducing those coast towns that still offered resistance . The Thebaid seems to have surrendered with scarcely any opposition . The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched from the Roman empire appears to have been due to the treachery of the governor of Egypt, Cyrus, patriarch of Alexandria, and the incompetence of the generals of the Roman forces . The former, called by the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs Mukaukis (Muqauqis) from his Coptic name Pkauchios, had for ten years before the arrival of `Amr maintained a fierce persecution of the Jacobite See also:

• SECT

sect, to which the bulk of the See also:

• COPTS

Copts belonged . During the siege of Babylon he had been recalled and exiled, but after the death of Heraclius had been reinstated as patriarch by Heraclonas, and been welcomed back to Alexandria with general rejoicing in September 641 .

Since Alexandria could neither have been stormed nor starved out by the Arabs, his motives for surrendering it, and with it the whole of Egypt, have been variously interpreted, some supposing him to have been secretly a convert to Islam . The notion that the Arab invaders were welcomed and assisted by the Copts, driven to desperation by the persecution of Cyrus, appears to be refuted by the fact that the invaders treated both Copts and Romans with the same ruthlessness; but the dissensions which prevailed in the Christian communities, leading to riots and even civil war in Alexandria and elsewhere, probably weakened resistance to the common enemy . An attempt was made in the year 645 with a force under See also:

• MANUEL, EUGENE (1823–1901)
• MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE (1775-1827)
• MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE (1751-1793)

Manuel, commander of the Imperial forces, to regain Alexandria for the Byzantine empire; the city was surprised, and held till the summer of 646, when it was again stormed by `Amr . In 654 a fleet was equipped by See also:

• CONSTANS, JEAN ANTOINE ERNEST (1833– )

Constans with a view to an invasion, but it was repulsed, and partly destroyed by storm . From that time no serious effort was made by the Eastern Empire to regain possession of the country . And it would appear that at the time of the attempt by Manuel the Arabs were actually assisted by the Copts, who at the first had found the Moslem lighter than the Roman yoke . A question often debated by Arabic authors is whether Egypt was taken by storm or capitulation, but, so far as the See also:

• TRANSFER (from Lat. transferre, to bear across, carry over)

transfer- ence of the country was accomplished by the first Terms of taking of Alexandria, there seems no doubt that the capitula- tion. latter view is correct . The terms were those on which conquered communities were ordinarily taken under Moslem protection . In return for a tribute of See also:

• MONEY

money (jizyah) and See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food for the troops of occupation (daribat-al-ta'am), the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were to be excused military service, and to be left free in the observance of their religion and the administration of their affairs . From 639 to 968 Egypt was a province of the Eastern Caliph-See also:

• ATE

ate, and was ruled by governors sent from the cities which at different times ranked as capitals . Like other provinces of the later Abbasid See also:

• CALIPHATE

Caliphate its rulers were, during this period, able to establish quasi-independent dynasties, such being those of the Tulunids who ruled from 868 to 905, and the Ikshidis from 935-969 . In 969 the country was conquered by Jauhar for the Fatimite caliph Mo'izz, who transferred his capital from Mandia (q.v.) in the Maghrib to Cairo .

This dynasty lasted till 1171, when Egypt was again embodied in the Abbasid empire by See also:

• SALADIN (Arab. Sala-ud-din, " Honouring the Faith ") (1138—1193)

Saladin, who, however, was himself the founder of a quasi-independent dynasty called the Ayyubites or Ayyubids, which lasted till 1252 . The Ayyubites were followed by the See also:

• MAMELUKE (anglicized through the French, from the Arabic mantluk, a slave)

Mameluke dynasties, usually classified as Bahri from 1252-1382, and Burji from 1382-1517; these sovereigns were nominally under the suzerainty of Abbasid caliphs, who were in reality See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments of the Mameluke sultans, and resided at Cairo . In 1517 Egypt became part of the See also:

• OTTOMAN

Ottoman empire and was governed by pashas sent from See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople, whose influence about 1707 gave way to that of gfficials chosen from the Mamelukes who See also:

• BORE

bore the title Sheik al-balad . After the episode of the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French occupation, government by pashas was restored; Mehemet See also:

• ALI

Ali (appointed See also:

• PASHA

pasha in 1805) obtained from the See also:

• PORTE, THE SUBLIME (Arab. babi-'ali, the high gate, through the French translation la sublime porte)

Porte in 1841 the right to bequeath the sovereignty to his descendants, one of whom, See also:

• ISMAIL (1830-1895)

Ismail Pasha, received the title See also:

• KHEDIVE

Khedive, which is still held by Mehemet Ali's descendants . (2) The following is a list of the governors of Egypt in these successive periods: (a) During the undivided Caliphate . 'Amr-See also:

• IBN

ibn-el-Ass, A.H . 18-24 (A.n . 639-645) . 'Abdallah b . Sa'd b . Abi Sarh, 24-36 (645-656) . Qais b .

Sa'd b . 'Ubadah, 36 (657-658) . Mahommed b . Abu Bekr, 37-38 (658) . Ashtar Malik b. al-Harith appointed, but never governed) . 'Arnr-ibn-el-Ass, 38-43 (658-663) . 'Utbah b . Abu Sofian, 43-44 (664-665) . 'Utbah b . 'See also:

• AMIR, or AMEER (an Arabic word meaning " commander," from the root amr, " commanding ")

Amir, 44-45 (665) . Maslama b . Mukhallad, 45-62 (665-682) .

Sa'id b . Yazid b . 'Alqamah, 62-64 (682-684) . Abdarrahman b . 'Utbah b . Jandam, 64-65 (684) . Abdalaziz ('Abd al-'Aziz) b . Merwan, 65-86 (685-705) . 'Abdallah b . 'Abd al-Malik, 86-90 (7Q5-7o8) . Qurrah b . Sharik al-'Absi, 90-96 (709-714) .

'Abd al-Malik b . Rifa'ah al-Fahmi, 96-99 (715-717) . Ayyub b . Shurabbil al-Asbabi, 99-101 (717-720) . Bishr b . Safwan al-Kalbi, 101-102 (720-721) . Hanzalah b . Safwan, 102-105 (721-724) . Mahommed b . 'Abd al-Malik, 105 (724) . Hurr b . Yusuf, 105–108 (724–727) .

IIafs b. al-Walid, 108 (727) . 'Abd al-Malik b . Rifa'ah, 109 (727) . Walid b . Rifa'ah, Io9-117 (727-735) . 'Abd al-Rabman b . Khalid, 117-118 (735) . Han?alah b . Safwan, 118-124 (735-742) . Hafs b. al-Walid, 124-127 (742-745) . See also:

• HASSAN

Hassan b . 'Atahiyah al-Tu'jibi, 127 (745) .

Ilafs b. al-Walid, 127 (745) . Hautharah b . Suhail al-Bahili, 128-131 (745-749) . Mughirah b . 'Ubaidallah al-Fazari, 131–132 (749) . 'Abd al-Malik b . Marwan al-Lakhmi, 132 (750) . Salib b . 'Ali, 133 (750-751) . Abu 'Aun 'Abdalmalik b . Yazid, 133-136 (751-753) . Will b .

'Ali, 136-137 (753-755)—second time . Abu 'Aun, 137-141 (755-758)—second time . Musa b . Ka'b b . 'Uyainah al-Tamimi, 141 (758-759).Mahommed b. al-Ash'See also:

• ATH, or AATII

ath b . 'Uqbah al-Khuza i, 141-143 (759-760) . Humaid b . Qabtabah b . Shabib 143-144 (760-762) . Yazid b . Hatim b . Kabisah al-Muhallabi, 144-152 (762-769) .

'Abdallah b . 'Abdarrabman b . Moawiya b . Hudaij, 152-155 (769–772) . Mahommed b . Abdarrabman b . Moawiya b . Iludaij, 155 (772) . Musa b . 'Ulayy b . Rabah al-Lakhmi, 155-161 (772-778) . 'Isa b .

Lugman b . Mahommed al-Jumahi, 161-162 (778) . Wadib, 162 (779) . Mansur b . Yazid b . Mansur al-Ru'aini, 162 (779) . Abu $alib Yabya b . Dawud b . Mamdud, 162-164 (779-780) . Salim b . Sawadah al-Tamimi, 164 (780-781) . See also:

• IBRAHIM

Ibrahim b .

Salib b . 'Ali, 165-167 (781-784) . Musa b . See also:

• MUS

Mus'ab b. al-Rabi al-Khath'ami, 167-168 (784-785) . Usamah b . 'Amr b . 'Alqamah al-Ma'afiri, 168 (785). al Fadl b . Salib b . 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 168-169 (785-786) . 'Ali b . Sulaiman b . 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 169-171 (786-787) .

Musa b . 'Isa b . Musa al-'Abbasi, 171-172 (787-789) . Maslamah b . Yabya b . Qurrah al-Bajili, 172-173 (789-790) . Mahommed b . See also:

• ZUHAIR [Zuhair ibn Abi Sulma Rabi' a ul-Muzani] (6th century)

Zuhair al-Azdi, 173 (790) . Dawud b . Yazid b . Ilatim al-Muhallabi, 174-175 (790) . Musa b .

'Isaal-`Abbasi, 175-176 (790-792) . Ibrahim b . Salib, 176 (792) . ,glib b . Ibrahim, 176 (792) . Abdallah b. al-Musayyib b . Zuhair al Dabbi, 176-177 (792-793)- Isbaq b . Sulaiman b . 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 177-178 (793-794) . Harthamah b . A'yan, 178 (794-795) . 'Obaidallah b. al-See also:

• MANDI

Mandi, 179 (795) .

Musa b . 'Isaal-'Abbasi, 179-180 (795-796) . 'Obaidallah b. al-Mandi, 18o-181 (796-797)—second time . Isma'il b . Salib b . 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 181–182 (797-798) . Ismail b . 'Isa b . Musa al-'Abbasi, 182-183 (798) . Laith b. al-Fadl al-Abiwardi, 183-187 (798-803) . Abmad b . Isma'il b .

'Ali al-'Abbasi, 187-189 (803-805) . 'Obaidallah b . Mahommed b . Ibrahim al-'Abbasi, 189-190 (805-806) . Husain b . Jamil, 190-192 (806-808) . Malik b . Dalham b . 'Isa al-Kalbi, 192-193 (808) . Uasan b. al-Tabtab, 193-194 (808-809) . I-latim b . Harthamah b .

A'yan, 194-495 (809-811) . Jabir b. al-Ash'ath b . Yabya al-'j a'1, 195-196 (811-812) . 'Abbad b . Mahommedb . Hayyan al-Balkhi, 196-198 (812-813) . Mottalib b . 'Abdallah b . Malik al-Khuza'i, 198 (813-814) . 'Abbas b . Musa b . 'Isa al-'Abbasi, 198–199 (814) .

Mottalib b . 'Abdallah, 199-200 (814-816)--second time . See also:

• SARI

Sari b. al-Hakam b . Yusuf, 200-201 (816) . Sulaiman b . Ghalib b . Jibril al-Bajili, 201 (816–817) . Sari b. al Hakam, 201-205 (817-820) . Abu Nasr Mahommed b. al-Sari, 205 (820-821) . 'Obaidallah b. al-Sari, 205–211 (821-826) . 'Abdallah b . Tahir, 211-213 (826-829) .

Mahommed b . See also:

• HARUN

Harun (al-Mo'tasim), 213-214 (829) . 'Umair b . Al-Walid al-Tamimi al-Badhaghisi, 214 (829) . 'Isa b . Yazid, 214 (829) . 'Abduyah b . Jabalah, 215-216 (830-831) . 'Isa b . Mansur b . Musa al-Rafi'i, 216-217 (831-832) . Nasr b .

Abdallah Kaidar al-$afadi, 217-219 (832-834) . Muzaffar b . Kaidar, 219 (834) . Musa b . Abi'l-Abbas Thabit al Hanafi, 219-224 (834-839) . Malik b . Kaidar al $afadi, 224-226 (839-841) . 'Ali b . Yabya abu 1-Hasan al-Armani, 226-228 (841-842) . 'Isa b . Mansur al-Rafi'i, 229-233 (843-847) . Harthamah b. al-See also:

• NADIR (Arabic nadir, " opposite to," used elliptically for nadir-es-semt, "opposite to the zenith ")

Nadir al Jabali, 233-234 (848-849) .

Hatim b . Harthamah, 234 (849) . 'Ali b . Yabya, 234-235 (849-850) . Ishaq b . Yabya al-Khatlani, 235-236 (850-851) . 'Abd al-Wahid b . Yabya b . Mansur, 236-238 (851-852) . 'Anbasa b . Ishaq b . Shamir, 238-242 (852-856) .

Yazid b . 'Abdallah b . Dinar, 242-253 (856-867) . Muzahim b . Khagan al-See also:

• TURKI

Turki, 253-254 (867-868) . Abmad b . Muzahim b . Khagan, 254 (868) . Urjuz b . Ulugh Tarkhan al-Turki, 254 (868) . Tulunid house . Abmad b .

Tulun, 254-270 (868-884) . Khomaruya b . Abmad, 270-282 (884-896) . Jaish h . Khomaruya, 282 (896) . Harun b . Khomaruya, 283-292 (896-904) . Shaiban b . Abmad, 292 (905) . 'Isa b . Mahommed al-Naushari, 292 (905) . Mahommed b .

'Ali al-Khalanji, 292-293 (905-906) . 'Isa al-Naushari, 293-297 (906-910)—second time . See also:

• TAKIN

Takin b . Abdallah al-Khazari, 297-302 (910-915) . Dhuka al-See also:

• RUMI, (1207-1273)

Rumi, 303-307 (915-919) . Takin b . 'Abdallah, 307-309 (919-921)—second time . Abu Qabus Mabmud b . Ilamal, 309 (921) . Hilal b . Badr, 309-311 (921-923) . Abmad b .

Kaighlagh, 311 (923) . Takin b . Abdallah, 311-321 (923-933)—third time . Mahommed b . Takin, 321 (933) . Fkshidi house . Mahommed b . Tughj al-Ikshid, 321 (933) . [Abmad b . Kaighlagh, 321-322 (933-934)] . Mahommed b . Tughj, 323-334 (934-946)--second time .

LUnjur b. al-Ikshid, 334-349 (946-961) . 'Ali b. al-Ikshid, 349-355 (961-966) . Kafur b . Abdallah al-Ikshidi, 355-357 (966-968) . Abu'l-Fawaris Abmad b . 'Ali b. al-Ikshid, 357 (968) . (b) Fatimite Caliphs, 357-567 (969-1171) . Mo'izz Abu Tamim Ma'add (or li-din See also:

• ALLAH

allah), 357-365 (969-975) . 'Aziz Abu Mansur Nizar (al-'Aziz billah), 365-386 (975-996) . Hakim [Abu 'Ali Mansur], 386-411 (996-1020) . Zahir [Abu'I-Hasan 'All], 411-427 (1020-1035) . Mostansir [Abu Tamim Ma'add], 427-487 (1035-1094) .

Mosta'li [Abu'l-Qasim Abroad], 487-495 (1094-1101) . Amir [Abu 'Ali Mansur], 495-524 (1101-1130) . Manz [Abu'l-Maimun 'Abd al-Majid], 524-544 (1130-1149) . Zafir [Abu'l-Mansur Ismaiil], 544-549 (1149-1154) . Fa'iz [Abu'I-Qasim 'Isa], 549-555 (1154-1160() . Adid [Abu Mahommed 'Abdallah], 555-567 (1160-1171) . (c) Ayyubite Sultans, 564-648 (1169-1250) . Malik al-Nasir Salab al-din Yusuf b . Ayyub (SALADIN), 564-589 (1169-1193) . Malik al-'Aziz 'Imad al-din See also:

• OTHMAN (c. 574-656)

Othman, 589-595 (1193-1198) . Malik al-Mansur Mahommed, 595-596 (1198-1199) . Malik al-'Adi?Saif al-din Abu Bakr, 596-615 (1199-1218) .

Malik AL-KAMIL Mahommed, 615-635 (1218-1238) . Malik al-'Adil II . Saif al-din Abu Bakr, 635-637 (1238-1240) . Malik al-Salih Najm al-din Ayyub, 637-647 (1240-1249) . Malik al-Mo'azzam Turanshah, 647-648 (1249-1250) . Malik al-Ashraf Musa, 648-65o (1250-1252) . (d) Bahri Mamelukes, 648-792 (1250-1390) . Shajar al-durr, 643 (1250) . Malik al-Mo'izz 'Izz al-din Aibek, 648-655 (1250-1257) . Malik al-Mansur Nureddin 'Ali, 655-657 (1257-1259) . Malik al-Mozaffar gaif al-din KOTuz, 657-658 (1259-1260) . Malik al-Zahir [Rukn al-din (Rukneddin) BIBARS Bundukdari], 658-676 (1260-1277) .

Malik al-Sa'id Nasir al-din Barakah See also:

• KHAN (from the Turki, hence Persian and Arabic Khan)

Khan, 676-678 (1277- Malik~al-'Adil Badr al-din Salamish, 678 (1279) . Malik al-Mansur Saif al-din QALA'Ux, 678-689 (1279-1290) . Malik al-Ashraf [Salab al-din KHALIL], 689-693 (1290-1293) . Malik al-Nasir [Nasir al-din Mahommed], 693-694 (1293-1294) . Malik al-'Adil [Zain al-din KITBOGA], 694-696 (1294-1296) . Mansur [Husain al-din LAJIN], 696-698 (1296-1298) . NASIR MAHOMMED (again), 698-708 (1298-1308) . Mozaffar [Rukn al-din Bibars Jashengir], 708-709 (1308-1310) . Nasir Mahommed (third time), 709-741 (1310-1341) . Mansur [Saif al-din ABU BAKR], 741-742 (1341) . Ashraf [See also:

• ALA

Ala'u '1-din KucxuK], 742 (1341-1342) . Nasir [Shihab al-din Abroad], 742-743 (1342) .

$alih 'Imad al-din Ismaiil], 743-746 (1342-1345) . Kamil [Saif al-din SuA'See also:

• BAN

BAN], 746-747 (1345-1346) . Mozaffar [Saif al-din HAJJI], 747-748 (1346-1347) . Nasir [Nasir al-din Hasan], 748-752 (1347-1351) . Salib [Salah al-din Sahb], 752-755 (1351-1354) . Nasir [Hasan] (again), 755-762 11354-1361) . Mansur [Salah al-din Mahommed], 762-764 (1361-1363) . Ashraf [Nasir al-din Sha'ban], 764-778 (1363-1377) . Mansur ['Ala'u '1-din 'Ali], 778-783 (1377-1381) . Sahli [See also:

• SAHIB

Sahib al-din Hajji], 783-784 (1381-1382) . Barkulc or Barquiq (see below), 784-791 (1382-1389) . Hajji again, with title of Mozaffar, 791-792 (1389-1390) .

(e) Burji Mamelukes, 784-922 (1382-1517) . Zahir [Saif al-din Barquq], 784-801 (1382-1398) [interrupted by Hajji, 791-792] . Nasir [Nasir al-din FARAJ], 8o,-8o8 (1398-1405) . Mansur ['1zz al-din Abdalaziz ('Abd al-'Aziz)], 808-809 (1405-1406) . Nasir Faraj (again), 809-815 (1406-1412) . Adil Mosta'in (Abbasid caliph), 815 (1412) . Mu'ayyad [See also:

• SHEIKH, or SHAIKH

Sheikh], 815—824 (1412—1421) . Mozaffar [Abmad], 824 (1421) . Zahir [Saif al-din Tatar], 824 (1421) . Salib [Nasir al-din Mahommed], 824-825 (1421-1422) . Ashraf [Saif al-din Barsbai], 825-842 (1422-1438) . 'Aziz []aural al-din Yusuf], 842 (1438) .

Zahir [Saif al-din Jakmak], 842-857 (1438—1453) . Mansur [See also:

• FAKHR

Fakhr al-din Othman], 857 (1453) . Ashraf [Saif al-din 'See also:

• NAIL (O. Eng. naegal, cf. Dutch, Ger., Swed. nagel; the word is also related to Lat. unguis, Gr. ovu, Sans. nakhas)

nail, 857-865 (1453-1461) . Mu'ayyad [Shihab al-din Abmad], 865 (1461).Zahir [See also:

• SAIL

Sail al-din Khoshkadam], 865-872 (1461-1467) . Zahir [Saif al-din Yelbai or Bilbai], 872 (1467) . Zahir [Timurbogha], 872-873 (1467-1468) . Ashraf [Saif al-din (KAIT See also:

• BEY (a modern Turk. word, the older form being beg, cf. Pers. baig)

BEY)], 873-901 (1468-1495) . Nasir [Mahommed], 901-904 (1495-1498) . Zahir [Kansuh], 904-905 (1498-1499)• Ashraf [Janbalat or See also:

• JAN

Jan See also:

• BELA
• BELA, LAS BELA

Bela], 905-906 (1499-1501) . 'Adil Tumanbey (1501) . Ashraf [Kansuh Ghuri], 906-922 (1501-1516) . Ashraf [Tumanbey], 922 (1516-1517) .

(f) See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish Governors after the Ottoman Conquest . Khair Bey, 923 (1517) . Hosain, 1085 (1674) . Mustafa Pasha, 926 (1520) . , I-Iasan al-Janbalat, 1687 (1676) . Ahmad, 929 (1523) . Othman, 1091 (1680) . Qasim, 930 (1524) . Hasan al-Silabdar, 1099 (1688) . Ibrahim, 931 (1525) . Abmad, Iio, (169o) . See also:

• SULEIMAN

Suleiman, 933 (1527) .

'Ali Qilij, 1102 (1691) . Dawud, 945 (1538) . Ismail, 1107 (1696) . 'Ali, 956 (1549) . Hosain, 1109 (1697) . Mahommed, 961 (I 54) . Qara Mahommed or Abmad, Iskandar, 963 (1556) . 1111 (1699) . 'Ali al-Khadim, 968 (1561) . Mahommed Rami, 1116 (1704) . Mustafa, 969 (1561) . 'All Muslim, 1118 (1706) .

'Ali al-Sufi, 971 (1563) . Hosain Ketkhuda, 1119 (1707) . Mabmud, 973 (1566) . Ibrahim Qabudan, 1121 (1709) . Sinan, 975 (1567) . Khalil, 1122 (1710) . Hosain, 980 (1573) . Wall, 1123 (1711) . Masib, 982 (1575) . 'Abidin, 1127 (1715) . Hasan al-Khadim, 988 (1580) . 'Ali Izmirli, 1129 (1717) .

Ibrahim, 991 (1583) . Rajab, 1130 (1718) . Sinan, 992 (1584) . Mahommed al-Bashimi, 1132 Uwais, 994 (1585) . (1720) . See also:

• HAFIZ

Hafiz Abroad, 999 (1591) . 'Ali, 1138 (1728) . Kurt, 1003 (1595) . Bakir, 1141 (1729) . Sayyid Mahommed, 1004 (1596) . 'Abdallah Kuburlu, 1142 (1729) . Khiclr, 1006 (1598) .

Mahommed Silandar, 1144(1732)• 'Ali al-Silabdar, 1009 (16o,) . Othman Halabi, 1146 (1733) . Ibrahim, 1012 (1604) . Bakir, 1148 (1735) . Mahommed al-Kurji, 1013 (1605) . Mustafa, 1149 (1736) . Hasan, 1014 (1605) . Sulaimanb.al-'Azim 1152(1739) . Mahommed al-Sufi, 1016 (1607) . 'Ali Hakim Oghlu,R153 (1740) . Abmadal-Daftardar, 1022 (1613) . Yabya, 1154 (1741) .

Mustafa Lafakli, 1026 (1617) . Mahommed Yedkeshi, 1156 Ja'far, 1027 (1618) . (1743)• Mustafa, 1028 (1619) . Mahommed Raghib,1158 (1745) . Hosain, 1028 (1619) . Abmad Kuruzir, 1161 (1748) . Mahommed, Io 1 (1622) . Sharif 'Abdallah, 1163 (1750) . Ibrahim, 1031 (1622) . Mahommed Amin, 1166 (1753) . Mustafa, 1032 (1623) . Mustafa, 1166 (1753) .

'Ali, 1032 (1623) . 'Ali Hakim Oghiu, 1169 (1756) . Mustafa, 1032 (1624) . Mahommed Sa'id, 1171 (1758) . See also:

• BAIRAM

Bairam, 1036 (1626) . Mustafa, 1173 (1759) . Mahommed, 1037 (1627) . Abmad Kamil, 1174 (1761) . Musa, 1040 (1631) . Bakir, 1175 (1761) . Khalilal-Bustanji, 1041 (1631) . Hasan, 1176 (1761) .

Abroad al-Kurji, 1042 (1633) . I,Iamzah, 1179 (1765) . Hosain, 1045 (1636) . Mahommed Ragim, 1181 (1767) . Mahommed b . Abroad, 1047 Mahommed Urflu, 1182 (1768) . (1638) . Abroad, 1183 (1770) . Mustafa al-Bustanji, 1049 (1639) . Qara Khalil, 1184 (1770) . Magsud, 1050 (1641) . Mustafa Nabulsi, 1188 (1774) .

Suyan Bey, 1054 (1644) . Ibrahim 'Arabgirli, 1189 (1775) . Ayyub, 1055 (1645) . Mahommed 'Izzet, 1190 (1776) . Mahommed b . Haidar, 1057 Ismail, 1193 (1779) . (1647) . ' Mahommed Malik, 1195 (1781) . Abroad, 1058 (1648) . Sharif 'Ali Qassab, 1196 (1782) . 'Abd al-Rabman, 1061 (1651) . Mahommed Silabdar,,198(1783) .

Mahommed al-Silandar, 1062 Mahommed Yeyen, 1200 (1785) . (1652) . 'Abidin Sharif, 1201 (1787) . See also:

• GHAZI (an Arabic word, from ghazd, to fight)

Ghazi, 1066 (1655) . Ismail Tunisi, 1203 (1788) . Omar, 1067 (1652) . Salib Qaisarli, 1209 (1794) . Abmad, 1077 (1666) . Abu Bakr Tarabulsi, 1211 Ibrahim, 1078 (1667) . (1796) . French Occupation . Khosrev, 1216 (1802) .

All Jaza'irli or Tarabulsi, 1218 Tahir, 1218 (1803) . (1803) . Khorshid, 1219 (1804) . (g) Hereditary Pashas (later Khedives), from 1220 (from 1805) . Mehemet 'Ali, 1220-1264 (1805- Sa'id, 1270-1280 (1854-1863) . 1848) . Ismail, 1280-1300 (1863-1882) . Ibrahim, 1264 (1848) . Tewfik, 1300-1309 (1882-1892) . 'Abbas I., 1264-1270 (1848-1854) . Abbas II., 1309 (1892) . (3) Period under Governors sent from the See also:

• METROPOLIS (Gr. piir17Pi mother, srGXis, city)

Metropolis of the eastern Caliphate.—The first governor of the newly acquired province was the conqueror 'Amr, whose See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction was presently restricted to Lower Egypt; Upper Egypt, which was divided into three provinces, being assigned to Abdallah b .

Sa'd, on whom the third caliph conferred the government of Lower Egypt also, `Amr being recalled, owing to his unwillingness to extort from his subjects as much money as would satisfy the caliph . In the troubles which overtook the Islamic empire with the accession of Othman, Egypt was greatly involved, and it had to be reconquered from the adherents of Ali for Moawiya (Mo'awiyah) by `Amr, who in A.H . 38 was rewarded for his services by being reinstated as governor, with the right to appropriate the surplus revenue instead of sending it as tribute to the metropolis . In the confusion which followed on the death of the Omayyad caliph Yazid the Egyptian Moslems declared themselves for Abdallah b . Zobair, but their leader was defeated in a battle near See also:

• AIN

Ain Shams (See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 684) by Merwan b . Hakam (Merwan I.), who had assumed the Caliphate, and the conqueror's son Abd al-`Aziz was appointed governor . They also declared themselves against the usurper Merwan II. in 745, whose lieu-See also:

• TENANT (from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenant al-Hautharah had to enter Fostat at the head of an army . In 750 Merwan II. himself came to Egypt as a fugitive from the See also:

• ABBASIDS

Abbasids, but found that the bulk of the Moslem population had already joined with his enemies, and was defeated and slain in the neighbourhood of Giza in July of the same year . The Abbasid general, Salih b . Ali, who had won the victory, was then appointed governor . During the period that elapsed between the Moslem conquest and the end of the Omayyad dynasty the nature of the Arab occupation had changed from what had originally been intended, the establishment of garrisons, to systematic colonization . Conversions of Copts to Islam were at first rare, and the old system of taxation was maintained for the greater part of the first Islamic century .

This was at the rate of a dinar per feddan, of which the proceeds were used in the first place for the pay of the troops and their families, with about half the amount in kind for the rations of the army . The See also:

• PROCESS

process by which the first of these contributions was turned into See also:

• COIN
• COIN (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign, all derived through the O. Fr. coing, and cuigne from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

coin is still obscure; it is clear that the corn when threshed was taken over by certain public officials who deducted the amount due to the state . In general the system is well illustrated by the papyri forming the Schott-Reinhardt collection at See also:

• HEIDELBERG

Heidelberg (edited by C.H . See also:

• BECKER, HEINRICH (1770-1822)
• BECKER, WILHELM ADOLF (1796—1846)

Becker, 1906), which contain a number of letters on the subject from Qurrah b . Shank, governor from A.H . 90 to 96 . The old division of the country into districts (nomoi) is maintained, and to the inhabitants of these districts demands are directly addressed by the governor of Egypt, while the head of the community, ordinarily a Copt, but in some cases a Moslem, is responsible for compliance with the demand . An official called " See also:

• RECEIVER

receiver " (gabbal) is chosen by the inhabitants of each district to take charge of the produce till it is delivered into the public magazines, and receives 5% for his trouble . Some further details are to be found in documents preserved by the archaeologist See also:

• MAQRIZI, or MAKRIZI [Tagi ud-Din Ahmad ibn 'Al] (1364–1442)

Maqrizi, from which it appears that the sum for which each district was responsible was distributed over the unit in such a way that artisans and tradesmen paid at a rate similar to that which was enforced on those employed in agriculture . It is not known at what time the practice of having the amount due settled by the community was altered into that according to which it was settled by the governor, or at what time the practice of deducting from the total certain expenses necessary for the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of the community was abandoned . The researches of See also:

• WELLHAUSEN, JULIUS (1844— )

Wellhausen and Becker have made it clear that the difference which is marked in later Islam between a See also:

• POLL

poll-tax (jizyah) and a land-tax (khardj) did not at first exist: the papyri of the 1st century know only of the jizyah, which, however, is not a poll-tax but a land-tax (in the main) . The development of the poll-tax imposed on members of tolerated cults seems to be due to various causes, chief of them the acquisition of land by Moslems, who were not at first allowed to possess any, the See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion of Coptic landowners to Islam, and the enforcement (towards the end of the 1st century of Islam) of the poll-tax on monks .

The See also:

• TREASURY

treasury could not afford to lose the land-tax, which it would naturally forfeit by the first two of the above occurrences, and we read ofvarious expedients being tried to prevent this loss . Such were making the Christian community to which the See also:

• PROSELYTE (Gr.IrpoaiXvros)

proselyte had belonged pay as much as it had paid when his lands belonged to it, making proselytes pay as before their conversion, or compelling them to abandon their lands on conversion . Eventually the theory spread that all land paid land-tax, whereas members of tolerated sects paid a personal tax also; but during the See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of this doctrine the relations between conquerors and conquered became more and more strained, and from the time when the control of the See also:

• FINANCE

finance was separated from the administration of the country (A.D . 715) complaints of See also:

• EXTORTION (Lat. extorsio, from extorquere, to twist out, to take away by force)

extortion became serious; under the predecessor of Qurrah, `Abdallah b . `Abd al-Malik, the country suffered from See also:

• FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

famine, and under this ruler it was unable to recover . Under the finance See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister Obaidallah b . Habhab (720—734) the first government survey by Moslems was made, followed by a See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census; but before this time the higher administrative posts had been largely taken out of the hands of Copts and filled with Arabs . The resentment of the Copts finally expressed itself in a revolt, which broke out in the year 725, and was suppressed with difficulty . Two years re copm volt. volt after, in order that the Arab See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in Egypt might be strengthened, a colony of North Arabians (Qaisites) was sent for and planted near Bilbeis, reaching the number of 3000 persons; this immigration also restored the See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance between the two branches of the Arab race, as the first immigrants had belonged almost exclusively to the South Arabian stock . Mean-while the employment of the Arabic language had been steadily gaining ground, and in 706 it was made the official language of the bureaux, though the occasional use of Greek for this purpose is attested by documents as late as the year 780 . Other revolts of the Copts are recorded for the year 739 and 750, the last year of Omayyad domination . The outbreaks in all cases are attributed to increased taxation .

The Abbasid period was marked at its commencement by the erection of a new capital to the north of Fostat, bearing the name `Askar or " camp." Apparently at this time the practice of farming the taxes began, which naturally led to even greater extortion than before; and a fresh rising of the Copts is recorded for the fourth year of Abbasid rule . Governors, as will be seen from the list, were frequently changed . The three officials of importance whose nomination is mentioned by the historians in addition to that of the governor were the commander of the bodyguard, the minister of finance and the judge . Towards the beginning of the 3rd Islamic century the practice of giving Egypt in See also:

• FIEF

fief to a governor was resumed by the caliph See also:

• MAMUN (c. 786-833)

Mamun, who bestowed this privilege on `Abdallah b . Tahir, who in 827 was sent to recover Alexandria, which for some ten years had been held by exiles from Spain . `Abdallah b . Tahir decided to reside at Bagdad, sending a See also:

• DEPUTY (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of deputare, to cut off, allot; putare having the original sense of to trim, prune)

deputy to Egypt to govern for him; and this example was afterwards followed . In 828, when Mamun's See also:

• BROTHER

brother Motasim was feudal See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord, a violent insurrection broke out in the Hauf, occasioned, as usual, by excessive taxation; it was partly quelled in the next year by Motasim, who marched against the rebels with an army of 4000 See also:

• TURKS

Turks . The rebellion broke out repeatedly in the following years, and in 831 the Copts joined with the Arabs against the government; the state of affairs became so serious that the caliph Mamun himself visited Egypt, arriving at Fostat in See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 832; his general Afshin fought a decisive battle with the rebels at Basharud in the Haul region, at which the Copts were compelled to surrender; the See also:

• MALES

males were massacred and the women and children sold as slaves . This event finally crushed the Coptic nation, which never again made head against the Moslems . In the following year the caliph Motasim, who surrounded himself with a foreign body-guard, withdrew the stipends of the Arab soldiers in Egypt; this measure caused some of the Arab tribes who had been long settled in Egypt to revolt, but their resistance was crushed, and the domination of the Arab element in the country from this time gave way to that of foreign mercenaries, who, belonging to one nation or another, held it for most of its subsequent history . Egypt was given in fief to a Turkish general Ashnas (Ashinas), who never visited the country, and the rule of individuals of Turkish origin prevailed till the rise of the See also:

• FATIMITES
• FATIMITES, or FATIMIDES

Fatimites, who for a time interrupted it .

The presence of Turks in Egypt is attested by documents as early as 808 . While the governor Turkish was appointed by the feudal lord, the finance minister governors continued to be appointed by the caliph . On the appointed. death of Ashnas in 844 Egypt was given in fief to another Turkish general Itakh, but in 85o this person fell out of favour, and the fief was transferred to Montasir, son of the caliph Motawakkil . In 856 it was transferred from him to the vizier Fath b . Khagan, who for the first time appointed a Turkish governor . The chief places in the state were also filled with Turks . The period between the rise of the Abbasids and the quasi-independent dynasties of Egypt was marked by much religious persecution, occasioned by the fanaticism of some of the caliphs, the victims being generally Moslem sectarians . (For Egypt under Motawakkil see CALIPHATE, § c. See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par . 1o.) The policy of these caliphs also led to severe measures being taken against any members of the Alid family or adherents of their cause who were to be found in Egypt . In the year 868 Egypt was given in fief to a Turkish general Bayikbeg, who sent thither as his representative his stepson 71Glnnid Alimad b . 'Nan, the first founder of a quasi-indevynesty. pendent dynasty . This personage was himself the son of a Turk who, originally sent as a slave to Bagdad, had risen to high rank in the service of the caliphs .

Ahmad b . Tulun spent some of his early life in See also:

• TARSUS (mod. Tersous)

Tarsus, and on his return distinguished himself by rescuing his See also:

• CARAVAN (more correctly Karwan)

caravan, which conveyed treasure belonging to the caliph, from brigands who attacked it; he afterwards accompanied the caliph Mosta'in into See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile, and displayed some See also:

• HONOURABLE (Fr. honorable, from Lat. honorabilis, worthy of honour)

honourable qualities in his treatment of the fallen sovereign . He found a rival in Egypt in the person of Ibn al-Modabbir, the finance minister, who occupied an independent position, and who started the practice of surrounding himself with an army of his own slaves or freedmen; of these Ibn Tulun succeeded in depriving the finance minister, and they formed the See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus of an army by which he eventually secured his own independence . Insurrections by adherents of the Alids gave him the opportunity to display his military skill; and when in 87o his stepfather died, by a stroke of See also:

• LUCK

luck the fief was given to his father-in-law, who retained Ahmad in the lieutenancy, and indeed extended his authority to Alexandria, which had till that time been outside it . The enterprise of a usurper in Syria in the year 872 caused the caliph to require the presence of Ahmad in that country at the head of an army to quell it; and although this army was not actually employed for the purpose, it was not disbanded by Ahmad, who on his return founded a fresh city called Kata'i', " the fiefs," S.E. of modern Cairo, to house it . On the death of Ahmad's father-in-law in the same year, when Egypt was given in fief to the caliph's brother Mowaffaq (famous for his defeat of the Zanj), Ahmad secured himself in his post by extensive See also:

• BRIBERY (from the O. Fr. briberie, begging or vagrancy, bribe, Mid. Lat. briba, signifying a piece of bread given to beggars; the Eng. " bribe " has passed through the meanings of alms, blackmail and extortion, to gifts received or given in order to influ

bribery at headquarters; and in the following year the administration of the Syrian frontier was conferred on him as well . By 875 he found himself strong enough to refuse to send tribute to Bagdad, preferring to spend the revenues of Egypt on the maintenance of his army and the erection of great buildings, such as his famous See also:

• MOSQUE (through Fr. mosquie; Span. mezquila, from Arab. masjid, sajada, to adore)

mosque; and though Mowaffaq advanced against him with an army, the project of reducing Ahmad to submission had to be abandoned for want of means . In 877 and 878 Ahmad advanced into Syria and obtained the submission of the chief cities, and at Tarsus entered into friendly relations with the representatives of the Byzantine emperor . During his absence his son `Abbas revolted in Egypt; on the See also:

• NEWS

news of his father's return he fled to See also:

• BARCA (mod. Merj)

Barca, whence he endeavoured to conquer the Aghlabite dominions in the Maghrib; he was, however, defeated by the Aghlabite ruler, and returned to Barca, where he was again defeated by his father's forces and taken prisoner . In 882 relations between Ahmad and Mowaffaq again became strained, and the former conceived the bold See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan of getting the caliph Mo'tamid into his power, which, however, was frustratedby Mowaffaq's vigilance; but an open rupture was the result, as Mowaffaq formally deprived Abmad of his lieutenancy, while Ahmad equally formally declared that Mowaffaq had forfeited the succession . A revolt that broke out at Tarsus caused Abmad to See also:

• TRAVERSE

traverse Syria once more in 883, but illness compelled him to return, and on the See also:

• ROTH, JUSTUS LUDWIG ADOLF (1818-1892)

roth of May 884 he died at his residence in Kata'i' . He was the first to establish the claim of Egypt to govern Syria, and from his time Egypt grew more and more independent of the Eastern caliphate .

He appears to have invented the fiction which afterwards was repeatedly employed, by which the money spent on mosque-building was supposed to have been furnished by discoveries of buried treasure . He was succeeded by his son Khomaruya, then twenty years of age, who immediately after his accession had to See also:

• DEAL

deal with an attempt on the part of the caliph to recover Syria; this attempt failed chiefly through dissensions between the caliph's officers, but partly through the ability of Khomaruya's general, who succeeded in winning a battle after his See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master had run away from the field . By 886 Mowaffaq found it expedient to grant Khomaruya the possession of Egypt, Syria, and the frontier towns for a period of thirty years, and ere long, owing to the disputes of the provincial governors, Khomaruya found it possible to extend his domain to the Euphrates and even the See also:

• TIGRIS (Old Persian Tigrd, Diklat of the cuneiform inscriptions, Hiddekel of the Old Testament, Diglath of the Targum, Digla of the Arabs)

Tigris . On the death of Mowaffaq in 891 the Egyptian governor was able to renew peaceful relations with the caliphs, and receive fresh See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

confirmation in his possessions for thirty years . The See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security which he thereby gained gave him the opportunity to indulge his taste for costly buildings, parks and other luxuries, of which the chroniclers give accounts bordering on the fabulous . After the marriage of his daughter to the caliph, which was celebrated at enormous expense, an arrangement was made giving the Tulunid sovereign the viceroyalty of a region extending from Barca on the west to See also:

• HIT

Hit on the east; but tribute, ordinarily to the amount of 300,000 dinars, was to be sent to the metropolis . His See also:

• REALM

realm enjoyed peace till his death in 896, when he fell a victim to some palace intrigue at See also:

• DAMASCUS

Damascus . His son and successor Abu'I-'Asakir Jaish was fourteen years old at his accession, and being without adequate guidance soon revealed his incompetence, which led to his being murdered after a reign of six months by his troops, who gave his place to his brother Harun, who was of about the same age . In the eight years of his government the Tulunid empire contracted, owing to the revolts of the deputies which Harun was unable to quell, though in 898 he endeavoured to secure a new See also:

• LEASE (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. laxare, to loosen)

lease of the sovereignty in Egypt and Syria by a fresh arrangement with the caliph, involving an increase of tribute . The following years witnessed serious troubles in Syria caused by the See also:

• CARMATHIANS (QARMATHIANS, KARMATHIANS)

Carmathians, which called for the intervention of the caliph, who at last succeeded in defeating these fanatics; the officer Mahommed b . Solaiman, to whom the victory was due, was then commissioned by the caliph to reconquer Egypt from the Tulunids, and after securing the See also:

• ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. ligeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia, &c.; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr. allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from " liege," of which the derivatio

allegiance of the Syrian prefects he invaded Egypt by sea and land at once . Before the arrival of these troops Harun had met his death at the hands of an See also:

• ASSASSIN (properly Hashish n, from Hashish, the opiate made from the juice of hemp leaves)

assassin, or else in an See also:

• AFFRAY

affray, and his See also:

• UNCLE

uncle Shaiban, who was placed on the throne, found himself without the means to collect an army See also:

• FIT

fit to grapple with the invaders .

Fostat was taken by Mahommed b . 8olaiman after very slight resistance, at the beginning of 905, and after the infliction of severe See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment on the inhabitants Egypt was once more put under a deputy, 'Isa al-Naushari, appointed directly by the caliph . The old regime was not restored without an attempt made by an adherent of the Tulunids to reconquer Egypt ostensibly for their benefit, and for a time the caliph's viceroy had to quit the capital . The vigorous measures of the authorities at Bagdad speedily quelled this rebellion, and the Tulunid palace at Kata'i' was then destroyed in order that there might be nothing to remind the Egyptians of the dynasty . In the middle of the year 914 Egypt was invaded for the first time by a Fatimite force sent by the caliph aI-Mandi 'Obaidallah, now established at See also:

• KAIRAWAN (KEROUAN)

Kairawan . The Mandi's son succeeded in taking Alexandria, and advancing as far as the Fayum; but once more the Abbasid caliph sent a powerful army to assist his viceroy, and the invaders were driven out of the country and pursued as far as Barca; the Fatimite caliph, however, continued to maintain active propaganda in Egypt . In 919 Alexandria was again seized by the Mandi's son, afterwards the caliph al-Qa`See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im, and while his forces advanced northward as far as Ushmunain (Eshmunain) he was reinforced by a fleet which arrived at Alexandria . This fleet was destroyed by a far smaller one sent by the Bagdad caliph to See also:

• ROSETTA (Coptic Rashit, Arabic Rashid)

Rosetta; but Egypt was not freed from the invaders till the year 921, when reinforcements had been repeatedly sent from Bagdad to deal with them . The extortions necessitated by these wars for the maintenance of armies and the incompetence of the viceroys brought Egypt at this time into a miserable condition; and the numerous political crises at Bagdad pre-vented for a time any serious measures being taken to improve it . After a struggle between various pretenders to the See also:

• VICE

vice-See also:

• ROYALTY (0. Fr. realte, reialte, royaulte, from Med. Lat. regalitas, the substantive of regalis, of or belonging to a king, rex)

royalty, in which some pitched battles were fought, Mahommed b . Tughj, son of a Tulunid prefect of Damascus, was sent by the caliph to restore order; he had to force his entrance into the country by an engagement with one of the pretenders, Ibn Kaighlagh, in which he was victorious, and entered Fostat in See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 935 . Mahommed b .

Tughj was the founder of the Ikshidi dynasty, so called from the title Ikshid, conferred on him at his See also:

• REQUEST, LETTERS OF

request by the caliph shortly after his See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment to the governorship of Egypt; it is said to have had the sense of " king " in See also:

• FERGHANA, or FERGANA

Ferghana, whence this person's ancestors had come to enter the service of the caliph Motasim . He had himself served under the governor of Egypt, Takin, whose son he displaced, in various capacities, and had afterwards held various governorships in Syria . One of the historians represents his appointment to Egypt as effected by bribery and even forgery . He united in his person the offices of governor and minister of finance, which had been separate since the time of the Tulunids . He endeavoured to replenish the treasury not only by extreme See also:

• ECONOMY

economy, but by inflicting fines on a vast scale on persons who had held offices under his predecessor and others who had rendered themselves suspect . The disaffected in Egypt kept up communications with the Fatimites, against whom the Ikshid collected a vast army, which, however, had first to be employed in resisting an invasion of Egypt threatened by Ibn Raiq, an adventurer who had seized Syria; after an indecisive engagement at Lajun the Ikshid decided to make peace with Ibn Raiq, undertaking to pay him tribute . The favour after-wards shown to Ibn Raiq at Bagdad nearly threw the Ikshid into the arms of the Fatimite caliph, with whom he carried on a friendly correspondence, one letter of which is preserved . He is even said to have given orders to substitute the name of the Fatimite caliph for that of the Abbasid in public See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

prayer, but to have been warned of the unwisdom of this course . In 941, after the death of Ibn Raiq, the Ikshid took the opportunity of invading Syria, which the caliph permitted him to hold with the addition of the sacred cities of See also:

• MECCA (Arab. Makkah)

Mecca and See also:

• MEDINA
• MEDINA, JOSE TORIBIO (1852- )

Medina, which the Tulunids had aspired to possess . He is said at this time to have started (in See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation of Abmad Ibn Tulun) a variety of vexatious enactments similar to those afterwards associated with the name of Hakim, e.g. compelling his soldiers to dye their See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair, and adding to their pay for the purpose . In the year 944 he was summoned to See also:

• MESOPOTAMIA (Mevoaora)

Mesopotamia to assist the caliph, who had been driven from Bagdad by Tuzun and was in the power of the IIamdanids; and he proposed, though unsuccessfully, to take the caliph with him to Egypt . At this time he obtained hereditary rights for his family in the government of that country and Syria .

The I3amdanid Saif addaula shortly after this assumed the governorship of See also:

• ALEPPO (native Haleb)

Aleppo, and became involved in a struggle with the Ikshid, whose general, Kafur, he defeated in an engagement between Horns and See also:

• HAMAH

Hamah (Hamath) . In a later battle he was himself defeated by the Ikshid, when an arrangement was made permitting Saif addaula to retain most of Syria, while a prefect appointed by the Ikshid was to remain in Damascus . The Buyid ruler, who was now supreme at Bagdad, permitted the Ikshid to remain inpossession of his viceroyalty, but shortly- after receiving this confirmation he died at Damascus in 946 . The second of this dynasty was the Ikshid's son Unjur, who had been proclaimed in his father's time, and began his government under the tutelage of the See also:

• NEGRO (from Lat. eager, black)

negro Kafur . Syria was immediately overrun by Saif addaula, but he was defeated by Kafur in two engagements, and was compelled to recognize the over-lordship of the Egyptian viceroy . At the death of Unjur in 961 his brother Abu'l-Iiasan `Ali was made viceroy with the caliph's consent by Kaffir, who continued to govern for his chief as before . The land was during this period threatened at once by the Fatimites from the west; the Nubians from the south, and the Carmathians from the east; when the second Ikshidi died in 965, Kafur at first made a pretence of appointing his young son Abmad as his successor, but deemed it safer to assume the viceroyalty himself, setting an example which in Mameluke times was often followed . He occupied the post little more than three years, and on his death in 968 the afore-mentioned Abmad, called Abu'l-Fawaris, was appointed successor, under the tutelage of a vizier named Ibn Furat, who had long served under the Ikshidis . The accession of this prince was followed by an incursion of the Carmathians into Syria, before whom the Ikshidi governor fled into Egypt, where he had for a time to undertake the management of affairs, and arrested Ibn Furat, who had proved himself incompetent . The administration of Ibn Furat was fatal to the Ikshidis and momentous for Egypt, since a Jewish convert, See also:

• JACOB
• JACOB, JOHN (1812-1858)

Jacob, son of See also:

• KILLIS

Killis, who had been in the Ikshid's service, and was See also:

• ILL

ill-treated by Ibn Furat, fled to the Fatimite sovereign, and persuaded him that the time for invading Egypt with a prospect of success had arrived, since there was no one in Fostat capable of organizing a plan of See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence, and the dissensions between the Buyids at Bagdad rendered it improbable that any succour would arrive from that quarter . The Fatimite caliph Mo'izz li-din allah was also in correspondence with other residents in Egypt, where the Alid party from the beginning of Abbasid times had always had many supporters; and the danger from the Carmathians rendered the presence of a strong government necessary . The Fatimite general Jauhar (variously represented as of Greek, Slav and Sicilian origin), who enjoyed the complete confidence of the Fatimite sovereign, was placed at the head of an army of 100,000 men—if See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental numbers are to be trusted—and started from Rakkada at the beginning of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 969 with the view of seizing Egypt .

Before his arrival the administration of affairs had again been committed to Ibn Furat, who, on See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing of the threatened invasion, at first proposed to treat with Jauhar for the peaceful surrender of the country; but though at first there was a prospect of this being carried out, the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the troops at Fostat preferred to make some resistance, and an advance was made to meet Jauhar in the neighbourhood of Giza . He had little difficulty in defeating the Egyptian army, and on the 6th of July 969 entered Fostat at the head of his forces . The name of Mo'izz was immediately introduced into public prayer, and coins were struck in his name . The Ikshidi governor of Damascus, a See also:

• COUSIN (Fr. cousin, Ital. cugino, Late Lat. cosinus, perhaps a popular and familiar abbreviation of consobrinus, which has the same sense in classical Latin)
• COUSIN, JEAN (1500-1590)
• COUSIN, VICTOR (1792–1867)

cousin of Abu'l-Fawaris Abmad, endeavoured to See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save Syria, but was defeated at Ramleh by a general sent by Jauhar and taken prisoner . Thus the Ikshidi Dynasty came to an end, and Egypt was transferred from the Eastern to the Western caliphate, of which it furnished the metropolis . (4) The Fatimite period begins with the taking of Fostat by Jauhar, who immediately began the building of a new city, al-Kahira or Cairo, to furnish quarters for the army which he had brought . A palace for the caliph and a mosque for the army were immediately constructed, the latter still famous as al-Azhar, and for many centuries the centre of Moslem learning . Almost immediately after the conquest of Egypt, Jauhar found himself engaged in a struggle with the Carmathians (q.v.), whom the Ikshidi prefect of Damascus had pacified by a promise of tribute; this promise was of course not held binding by the Fatimite general (Ja'far b . Falab) by whom Damascus was taken, and the Carmathian leader al-IJasan b . Abmad al-A`sam received Ikshidite Dynasty . aid from Bagdad for the purpose of recovering Syria to the Abbasids . The general Ja'far, hoping to deal with this enemy independently of Jauhar, met the Carmathians without waiting for reinforcements from Egypt, and fell in battle, his army being defeated .

Damascus was taken by the Carmathians, and the name of the Abbasid caliph substituted for that of Mo'izz in public worship . See also:

• HASA, EL (Ahsa, Al Hasa)

Hasa,n al-A'sam advanced from Damascus through Palestine to Egypt, encountering little resistance on the way; and in the autumn of 971 Jauhar found himself besieged in his new city . By a timely sortie, preceded by the administration of bribes to various officers in the Carmathian host, Jauhar succeeded in inflicting a severe defeat on the besiegers, who were compelled to evacuate Egypt and part of Syria . Meanwhile Mo'izz had been summoned to enter the palace that had been prepared for him, and after leaving a viceroy to take charge of his western possessions he arrived in Alexandria on the 31st of May 973, and proceeded to instruct his new subjects in the particular form of religion (Shi'ism) which his family represented . As this was in origin identical with that professed by the Carmathians, he hoped to gain the submission of their leader by See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument; but this plan was unsuccessful, and there was a fresh invasion from that quarter in the year after his arrival, and the caliph found himself besieged in his capital . The Carmathians were gradually forced to See also:

• RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back)

retreat from Egypt and then from Syria by some successful engagements, and by the judicious use of bribes, whereby dissension was sown among their leaders . Mo'izz also found time to take some active measures against the Byzantines, with whom his generals fought in Syria with varying See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune . Before his death he was acknowledged as caliph in Mecca and Medina, as, well as Syria, Egypt and North Africa as far as See also:

• TANGIER (locally TANJAH)

Tangier . In the reign cif the second Egyptian Fatimite `Aziz billah, Jauhar, who appears to have been cashiered by Mo'izz, was again employed at the instance of Jacob b . Killis, who had been raised to the rank of vizier, to deal with the situation in Syria, where a Turkish general Aftakin had gained possession of Damascus, and was raiding the whole country; on the arrival of Jauhar in Syria the Turks called the Carmathians to their aid, and after a campaign of many vicissitudes Jauhar had to return to Egypt to implore the caliph himself to take the field . In August 977 `Aziz met the united forces of Aftakin and his Carmathian ally outside Ramleh in Palestine and inflicted a crushing defeat on them, which was followed by the capture of Aftakin; this able officer was taken to Egypt, and honourably treated by the caliph, thereby incurring the See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux, jealous, Low Lat. zelosus, Gr. j'i os, ardour, zeal, from the root seen in '&u', to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast ")

jealousy of Jacob b . Killis, who caused him, it is said, to be poisoned .

This vizier had the astuteness to see the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of codifying the doctrines of the Fatimites, and himself undertook this task; in the newly-established mosque of el-Azhar he got his master to make provision for a perpetual series of teachers and students of his See also:

• MANUAL

manual . It would appear, however, that a large amount of toleration was conceded by the first two Egyptian Fatimites to the other sects of Islam, and to other communities . Indeed at one time in `Aziz's reign the vizierate of Egypt was held by a Christian, Jesus, son of See also:

• NESTORIUS (d. c. 451)

Nestorius, who appointed as his deputy in Syria a See also:

• JEW, THE WANDERING

Jew, See also:

• MANASSEH (7th cent. B.C.)
• MANASSEH (apparently Hebrew for " he who causes to for-get," but see H. W. Hogg, Encyc. Bib., s.v.); in the Bible, a tribe of Israel, the elder but less important of the "sons" of Joseph. Its seat lay to the north of Ephraim, but its boundaries can scarce

Manasseh b . See also:

• ABRAHAM, or ABRAM (Hebrew for " father is high ")

Abraham . These persons were charged by the Moslems with unduly favouring their co-religionists, and the belief that the Christians of Egypt were in league with the Byzantine emperor, and even burned a fleet which was being built for the Byzantine war, led to some persecution . Aziz attempted without success to enter into friendly relations with the Buyid ruler of Bagdad, 'Adod addaula, who was disposed to favour the 'Alids, but caused the claim of the Fatimites to descend from 'Ali to be publicly refuted . He then tried to gain possession of Aleppo, as the key to `See also:

• IRAK

Irak, but this was prevented by the intervention of the Byzantines . His North See also:

• AFRICAN

African possessions were maintained and extended by `Ali, son of Bulukkin, whom Mo'izz had left as his deputy; but the recognition of the Fatimite caliph in this region was little more than nominal . His successor Abu `Ali al-Mansur, who reigned under thetitle al-Hakim bi'amr allah, came to the throne at the age of eleven, being the son of 'Aziz by a Christian See also:

• MOTHER

mother . He was at first under the tutelage of the Slav Burjuwan, whose policy it was to favour the Turkish element in the army as against the Maghribine, on which the strength of the Fatimites had till then rested; his conduct of affairs was vigorous and successful, and he concluded a peace with the Greek emperor . After a few years' regency he was assassinated at the instance of the young sovereign, who at an early age developed a dislike for control and jealousy of his rights as caliph . He is branded by historians as the Caligula of the East, who took a delight in imposing on his subjects a variety of senseless and capricious regulations, and persecuting different sections of them by cruel and arbitrary measures .

It is observable that some of those with which Hakim is credited are also ascribed to Ibn Tulun and the Ikshid (Mahommed b . Tughj) . He is perhaps best remembered by his destruction of the church of the See also:

• HOLY

Holy See also:

• SEPULCHRE, CANONS REGULAR OF THE HOLY
• SEPULCHRE, EASTER
• SEPULCHRE, THE HOLY

Sepulchre at See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem (1oio), a measure which helped to provoke the See also:

• CRUSADES

Crusades, but was only part of a general scheme for converting all Christians and Jews in his dominions to his own opinions by force . A more reputable expedient with the same end in view was the construction of a great library in Cairo, with ample provision for students; this was mpdelled on a similar institution at Bagdad . It formed part of the great palace of the Fatimites, and was intended to be the centre of their propaganda . At times, however, he ordered the destruction of all Christian churches in Egypt, and the banishment of all who did not adopt Islam . It is See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange that in the midst of these persecutions he continued to employ Christians in high official positions . His system of persecution 'was not abandoned till in the last year of his reign (1020) he thought fit to claim divinity, a doctrine which is perpetuated by the See also:

• DRUSES
• DRUSES, or DRUZES (Arab. Druz)

Druses (q.v.), called after one Darazi, who preached the divinity of Hakim at the time; the violent opposition which this aroused among the Moslems probably led him to adopt milder measures towards his other subjects, and those who had been forcibly converted were permitted to return to their former religion and rebuild their places of worship . Whether his disappearance at the beginning of the year 1021 was due to the resentment of his outraged subjects, or, as the historians say, to his sister's fear that he would bequeath the caliphate to a distant relative to the exclusion of his own son, will never be known . In spite of his caprices he appears to have shown competence in the management of external affairs; enterprises of pretenders both in Egypt and Syria were crushed with promptitude; and his name was at times mentioned in public worship in Aleppo and See also:

• MOSUL

Mosul . His son Abu'l-Masan `Ali, who succeeded him with the title al-ahir li'i'zaz din allah, was sixteen years of age at the time, and for four years his aunt Sitt al-hulk acted as See also:

• REGENT (from Lat. regere, to rule)

regent; she appears to have been an astute but utterly unscrupulous woman . After her death the caliph was in the power of various ministers, under whose management of affairs Syria was for a time lost to the Egyptian caliphate, and Egypt itself raided by the Syrian usurpers, of whom one, Salih b .

Mirdas, succeeded in establishing a dynasty at Aleppo, which maintained itself after Syria and Palestine had been recovered for the Fatimites by Anushtakin al-Dizbari at the battle of Ukhuwanah in 1029 . His career is said to have been marked by some horrible caprices similar to those of his father . After a reign of nearly sixteen years he died of the plagud . His successor, Abu Tamim Ma'add, who reigned with the title al-Mostansir, was also an See also:

• INFANT (in early forms enfaunt, enfant, through the Fr. enfant, from Lat. infans, in, not, and fans, the present participle of fari, to speak)

infant at the time of his accession, being little more than seven years of age . The power was largely in the hands of his mother, a negress, who promoted the interests of her kinsmen at court, where indeed even in Hakim's time they had been used as a counterpoise to the Maghribine and Turkish elements in the army . In the first years of this reign affairs were administered by the vizier al-Jarjara'i, by whose mismanagement Aleppo was lost to the Fatimites . At his death in 1044 the chief influence passed into the hands of Abu Sa'd, a Jew, and the former master of the queen-mother, and at the end of four years he was assassinated at the instance of another Jew (Sadakah, perhaps See also:

• ZEDEKIAH (Hebrew for " righteousness of Yah[weh] ")

Zedekiah, b . See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph al-Falalu), whom he had appointed vizier . In this reign Mo'izz b . Badis, the 4th ruler of the dependent Zeirid dynasty which had ruled in the Maghrib since the See also:

• MIGRATION

migration of the Fatimite Mo'izz to Egypt, definitely abjured his allegiance (1049) and returned to Sunnite principles and subjection to the Bagdad caliphate . The Zeirids maintained Mandia (see See also:

• ALGIERS (Fr. Alger, Arab. Jezair, i.e. The Islands)

ALGIERS), while other cities of the Maghrib were colonized by Arab tribes sent thither by the Cairene vizier . This loss was more than compensated by the enrolment of See also:

• YEMEN (Yaman)

Yemen among the countries which recognized the Fatimite caliphate through the enterprise of one `Ali b .

Mahommed al-Sulail}i, while owing to the disputes between the Turkish generals who claimed supremacy at Bagdad, Mostansir's name was mentioned in public prayer at that metropolis on the 12th of See also:

• JANUARY

January Io58, when a Turkish adventurer Basasiri was for a time in power . The Egyptian court, chiefly owing to the jealousy of the vizier, sent no efficient aid to Basasiri, and after a year Bagdad was retaken by the Seljuk Toghrul Beg, and the Abbasid caliph restored to his rights . In the following years the troubles in Egypt caused by the struggles between the Turkish and negro elements in Mostansir's army nearly brought the country into the dominion of the Abbasids . After several battles of various issue the Turkish commander Nasir addaula b . Hamdan got possession of Cairo, and at the end of Io68 plundered the caliph's palace; the valuable library which had been begun by Hakim was pillaged, and an accidental See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire caused great destruction . The caliph and his family were reduced to destitution, and Nasir addaula began negotiations for restoring the name of the Abbasid caliph in public prayer; he was, however, assassinated before he could carry this out, and his assassin, also a Turk, appointed vizier . Mostansir then summoned to his aid Badr al-Jamall, an Armenian who had displayed competence in various posts which he had held in Syria, and this person early in 1074 arrived in Cairo accompanied by a bodyguard of Armenians; he contrived to massacre the chiefs of the party at the time in possession of power, and with the title Amir al-Juyush (" prince of the armies ") was given by Mostansir complete control of affairs . The period of internal disturbances, which had been accompanied by famine and pestilence, had caused usurpers to See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring up in all parts of Egypt, and Badr was compelled practically to reconquer the country . During this time, however, Syria was overrun by an invader in league with the Seljuk Malik Shah, and Damascus was permanently lost to the Fatimites; other cities were recovered by Badr himself or his officers . He rebuilt the walls of Cairo, of more durable material than that which had been employed by Jauhar—a measure rendered necessary partly by the growth of the metropolis, but also by the repeated sieges which it had undergone since the commencement of Fatimite rule . The time of Mostansir is otherwise memorable for the rise of the Assassins (q.v.), who at the first supported the claims of his eldest son Nizar to the succession against the youngest Ahmed, who was favoured by the family of Badr . When Badr died in 1094 his influence was inherited by his son al-Afdal Shahinsh.ah, and this, at the death of Mostansir in the same year, was thrown in favour of Ahmed, who succeeded to the caliphate with the title al-Mosta'li billdh .

Mosta'li's succession was not carried through without an attempt on the part of Nizar to obtain his rights, the title which he See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose being al-Mostafd lidin alldh; for a time he The crusades. maintained himself in Alexandria, but the energetic measures of his brother soon brought the civil war to an end . The beginning of this reign coincided with the beginning of the Crusades, and al-Afdal made the fatal mistake of helping the See also:

• FRANKS
• FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON (1826-1897)

Franks by rescuing Jerusalem from the Ortokids, thereby facilitating its conquest by the Franks in Io9ee He endeavoured to retrieve his error by himself advancing into Palestine, but he was defeated in the neighbourhood of Ascalon, and compelled to retire to Egypt . Many of the Palestinian possessions of the Fatimites then successively fell into the hands of the Franks . After a reign of seven years Mosta'li died and the caliphate was given by al-Af dal to an infant son, aged five years at the time, Ix . 4who was placed on the throne with the title al-Amir biahkam allah, and for twenty years was under the tutelage of al-Afdal . He made repeated attempts to recover the Syrian and Palestinian cities from the Franks, but with poor success . 'In 1118 Egypt was invaded by See also:

• BALDWIN, JAMES MARK (1861– )
• BALDWIN, ROBERT (1804–1858)

Baldwin I., who burned the gates and the mosques of Farama, and advanced to Tinnis, whence illness compelled him to retreat . In August 1121 al-Afdal was assassinated in a See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

street of Cairo, it is said, with the connivance of the caliph, who immediately began the plunder of his house, where fabulous treasures were said to be amassed . The vizier's offices were given to one of the caliph's creatures, Mahommed b . Fail( al-Bata'ihi, who took the title al-Ma'See also:

• MUN, ADRIEN ALBERT MARIE DE, COUNT (1841— )
• MUN, THOMAS (1571–1641)

mun . His external policy was not more fortunate than that of his predecessor, as he lost See also:

• TYRE (Phoen. and Hebr. =" rock," Assyr. S'urru, Egypt. Dara, Early Lat. Sarra)

Tyre to the Franks, and a fleet equipped by him was defeated by the Venetians . On the 4th of See also:

• OCTOBER

October 1125 he with his followers was seized and imprisoned by order of the Caliph Amir, who was now resolved to govern by himself, with the assistance of only subordinate officials, of whom two were See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from the Samaritan and Christian communities .

The vizier was after-wards crucified with his five See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers . The caliph's personal government appears to have been incompetent, and to have been marked by extortions and other arbitrary measures . He was assassinated in October 1129 by some members of the sect who believed in the claims of Nizar, son of Mostansir . The succeeding caliph, Abu'l-Maimun 'Abd al-Majid, who took the title al-t-Iafi lidin allah, was not the son but the cousin of the deceased caliph, and of ripe age, being about fifty-eight years old at the time; for more than a year he was kept in See also:

• PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio, seizure)

prison by the new vizier, a son of al-Af dal, whom the army had placed in the post; but towards the end of 1131 this vizier fell by the hand of assassins, and the caliph was set free . The reign of Hafi was disturbed by the factions of the soldiery, between which several battles took place, ending in the subjection of the caliph for a time to various usurpers, one of these being his own son Hasan, who had been provoked to rebel by the caliph nominating a younger brother as his successor . For some months the caliph was under this son's control; but the latter, who aimed at conciliating the people, speedily lost his popularity with the troops, and his father was able to get possession of his person and cause him to be poisoned (beginning of 1135) . His son Abu'l-Manmur Ismail, who was seventeen years old at the time of Hanes death, succeeded him with the title al-Zafir lia'da allah . From this reign to the end of the Fatimite period we have the See also:

• JOURNALS

journals of two eminent men, Usamah b . Muniqdh and Umarah of Yemen, which throw light on the leading characters . The civil dissensions of Egypt were notorious at the time . The new reign began by an armed struggle between two commanders for the post of vizier , which in January 1150 was decided in favour of the Amir Ibn Sallar . This vizier was presently assassinated by the direction of his stepson 'Abbas, who was raised to the vizierate in his place .

This event was shortly followed by the loss to the Fatimites of Ascalon, the last place in Syria which they held; its loss was attributed to dissensions between the parties of which the garrison consisted . Four years later (April 1154) the caliph was murdered by his vizier `Abbas, according to Usamah, because the caliph had suggested to his favourite, the vizier's son, to murder his father; and this was followed by a massacre of the brothers of Zafir, followed by the raising of his infant son Abu'l-Qasim 'Isa to the throne . The new caliph, who was not five years old, received the title al-Fa'iz binamr allah, and was at first in the power of 'Abbas . The women of the palace, however, summoned to their aid Tala'i' b . Ruzzik, prefect of Ushmunain, at whose arrival in Cairo the troops deserted 'Abbas, who was compelled to flee into Syria, taking his son and Usamah with him . 'Abbas was killed by the Franks near Ascalon, his son sent in a cage to Cairo where he was executed, while Usamah escaped to Damascus, The infant Fa'iz, who had been permanently incapacitated by the scenes of violence which accompanied his accession, died in 1160 . Tala'i' chose to succeed him a grandson of 7rafir, who was nine years of age, and received the title al-';4tlid lidin allah Tala'i', who had complete control of affairs, introduced the II practice of farming the taxes for periods of six months instead of a year, which led to great misery, as the taxes were demanded twice . His death was brought on by the rigour with which he treated the princesses, one of whom, with or without the See also:

• CON

con- nivance of the caliph, organized a plot for his assassination, and he died in September 1160 . His son Ruzzik inherited his post and maintained himself in it for more than a year, when another prefect of Upper Egypt, Shawar b . Mujir, brought a force to Cairo, before which Ruzzik fled, to be shortly afterwards captured and beheaded . Shawar's entry into Cairo was at the beginning of 1163; after nine months he was compelled to flee before another adventurer, an officer in the army named Dirgham . Shawar's flight was directed to Damascus, where he was favour- ably received by the prince Nureddin, who sent with him to Cairo a force of Kurds under Asad al-din Shirguh .

At the same time Egypt was invaded by the Franks, who raided and did much damage on the coast . Dirgham was defeated and killed, but a dispute then arose between Shawar and his Syrian allies for the possession of Egypt . Shawar, being unable to See also:

• COPE
• COPE (M.E. cape, cope, from Med. Lat. capa, cappa)
• COPE, EDWARD DRINKER (1840-1897)
• COPE, EDWARD MEREDITH (1818-1873)

cope with the Syrians, demanded help of the Frankish king of Jerusalem See also:

• AMALRIC
• AMALRIC (Fr. AMAURY) OF BENA (d. c. 1204-1207)

Amalric (Amauri) I., who hastened to his aid with a large force, which united with Shawar's and besieged Shirguh in Bilbeis for three months; at the end of this time, owing to the successes of Nureddin in Syria, the Franks granted Shirguh a free passage with his troops back to Syria, on condition of Egypt being evacuated (October 1164) . Rather more than two years later Shirguh persuaded Nured- din to put him at the head of another expedition to Egypt, which left Syria in January 1167, and, -entering Egypt by the land route, crossed the Nile at Itfih (Atfih), and encamped at Giza; a Frankish` army hastened to Shawar's aid . At the battle of Babain (April 11th, 1167) the allies were defeated by the forces commanded by Shirguh and his nephew Saladin, who was Saiadin. presently made prefect of Alexandria, which sur- rendered to Shirguh without a struggle . Saladin was soon besieged by the allies in Alexandria; but after seventy-five days the siege was raised, Shirguh having made a threatening See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement on Cairo, where a Frankish garrison had been admitted by Shawar . Terms were then made by which both Syrians and Franks were to quit Egypt, though the garrison of Cairo remained; the hostile attitude of the Moslem population to this garrison led to another invasion at the beginning of 1168 by King Amalric, who after taking Bilbeis advanced to Cairo . The caliph, who up to this time appears to have left the administration to the viziers, now sent for Shirguh, whose speedy arrival in Egypt caused the Franks to withdraw . Reaching Cairo on the 6th of January 1169, he was soon able to get possession of Shawar's person, and after the prefect's execution, which happened some ten days later, he was appointed vizier by the caliph . After two months Shirguh died of indigestion (23rd of March 1169), and the caliph appointed Saladin as successor to Shirguh; the new vizier professed to hold office as a deputy of Nureddin, whose name was mentioned in public worship after that of the caliph . By appropriating the fiefs of the Egyptian officers and giving them to his Kurdish followers he stirred up much ill-feeling, which resulted in a See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy, of which the object was to recall the Franks with the view of overthrowing the new regime; but this conspiracy was revealed by a traitor and crushed . Nureddin loyally aided his deputy in dealing with Frankish invasions of Egypt, but the See also:

• ANOMALY (from Gr. lwvw)

anomaly by which he, being a Sunnite, was made in Egypt to recognize a Fatimite caliph could not long continue, and he ordered Saladin to weaken the Fatimite by every available means, and then substitute the name of the Abbasid for his in public worship .

Saladin and his ministers were at first afraid lest this step might give rise to disturbances among the people; but a stranger undertook to See also:

• RISK

risk it on the 17th of September 1171, and the following Friday it was repeated by official order; the caliph himself died during the interval, and it is uncertain whether he ever heard of his deposition . The last of the Fatimite caliphs was not quite twenty-one years old at the time of his death . (5) Ayyubite Period.—Saladin by the advice of his chiefNureddin cashiered the Fatimite See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges and took steps to encourage the study of orthodox See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology and See also:

• JURISPRUDENCE (Lat. jurisprudenlia, knowledge of law, from jus, right, and prudentia, from providere, to foresee)
• JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE

jurisprudence in Egypt by the foundation of colleges and chairs . On the death of the ex-caliph he was confirmed in the prefecture of Egypt as deputy of Nureddin; and on the decease of the latter in 1174 (12th of April) he took the title See also:

• SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

sultan, so that with this year the Ayyubite period of Egyptian history properly begins . During the whole of it Damascus rather more than Cairo counted as the metropolis of the empire . The Egyptian army, which was See also:

• MOTLEY
• MOTLEY, JOHN LOTHROP (1814–1897)

motley in character, was disbanded by the new sultan, whose troops were Kurds . Though he did not build a new metropolis he fortified Cairo with the addition of a citadel, and had plans made for a new wall to enclose both it and the See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double city; this latter plan was never completed, but the former was executed after his death, and from this time till the French occupation of Egypt the citadel of Cairo was the political centre of the country . It was in 1183 that Saladin's rule over Egypt and North Syria was consolidated . Much of Saladin's time was spent in Syria, and his famous wars with the Franks belong to the history of the Crusades and to his personal biography . Egypt was largely governed by his favourite Karakush, who lives in popular See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend as the " unjust judge," though he does not appear to have deserved that title . Saladin at his death divided his dominions between his sons, of whom `Othman succeeded to Egypt with the title Malik al-Aziz `Imal al-ain . The division was not satisfactory to the heirs, and after three years (beginning of 1196) the Egyptian sultan conspired with his uncle Malik al-`Adil to deprive Saladin's son al-Afdal of Damascus, which had fallen to his See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot .

The war between the brothers was continued with intervals of peace, during which al-`Adil repeatedly changed sides: eventually he with al-`Aziz besieged and took Damascus, and sent al-Af dal to Sarkhad, while al-'Adil remained in possession of Damascus . On the death of al-'Aziz on the 29th of November 1198 in consequence of a See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

hunting See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident, his infant son Mahommed was raised to the throne with the title Malik al-Mansur Nc4ir al-din, and his uncle al-Afdal sent for from Sarkhad to take the post of regent or Atabeg . So soon as al-Afelal had got possession of his nephew's person, he started on an expedition for the recovery of Damascus: al-'Adil not only frustrated this, but drove him back to Egypt, where on the 25th of January 1200 a battle was fought between the armies of the two at Bilbeis, resulting in the defeat of al-Afdal, who was sent back to Sarkhad, while al-`Adil assumed the regency, for which after a few months he substituted the sovereignty, causing his nephew to be deposed . He reigned under the title Malik al-'Adil Sail al-din . His name was Abu Bakr . Though the early years of his reign were marked by numerous disasters, famine, pestilence and See also:

• EARTHQUAKE

earthquake, of which the second seems to have been exceedingly serious, he reunited under his sway the whole of the empire which had belonged to his brother, and his generals conquered for him parts of Mesopotamia and See also:

• ARMENIA (old Persian Armina, Armenian Hayasdan, or Hayq)

Armenia, and in 1215 he got possession of Yemen . He followed the plan of dividing his empire between his sons, the eldest Mahommed, called Malik al-Kamil, being his viceroy in Egypt, while al-Mu'azzam `Isa governed Syria, al-Ashraf Musa his eastern and al-Malik al-Auhad Ayyub his northern possessions . His attitude towards the Franks was at the first peaceful, but later in his reign he was compelled to adopt more strenuous measures . His death occurred at Alikin (1218), a See also:

• VILLAGE

village near Damascus, while the Franks were besieging See also:

• DAMIETTA

Damietta—the first operation of the Fifth Crusade—which was defended by al-Kamil; to whom his father kept sending reinforcements . The efforts of al-Kamil after his accession to the independent sovereignty were seriously hindered by the endeavour of an amir named Ahmed b . Mashtub to depose him and appoint in his place a brother called al-Fa'iz Sabiq al-din Ibrahim: this attempt was frustrated by the timely interposition of al-Mu'azzam `Isa, who came to Egypt to aid his brother in February 1219, and compelled al-Fa'iz to depart for Mosul . After a siege of sixteen and a half months Damietta was taken by the Franks on Tuesday the 6th of November 1219; al-Kamil thereupon proclaimed the Frankish invasion .

HISTORY) See also:

• JIHAD (also written JEHAD, JAHAD, DJEHAD)

Jihad, and was joined at his fortified camp, afterwards the site of See also:

• MANSURA

Mansura, by troops from various parts of Egypt, Syria and Mesopotamia, including the forces of his brothers 'Isa and Musa . With these allies, and availing himself of the advantages offered by the inundation of the Nile, al-Kamil was able to cut off both the advance and the retreat of the invaders, and on the 31st of August 122I a peace was concluded, by which the Franks evacuated Egypt . For some years the dominions of al-'Adil remained divided between his sons: when the affairs of Egypt were settled, al-Kamil determined to reunite them as before, and to that end brought on the Sixth Crusade . Various cities in Palestine and Syria were yielded to See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick II. as the See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price of his help against the son of Mu'azzam `Isa, who reigned at Damascus with the title of Malik al-Nasir . About I231–32 Kamil led a confederacy of Ayyubite princes against the Seljuk Kaikobad into Asia Minor, but his allies mistrusted him and victory rested with Kaikobad (see See also:

• SELJUKS

SELJUKS) . Before Kamil's death he was mentioned in public prayer at Mecca as lord of Mecca (See also:

• HEJAZ (H1JAz)

Hejaz), Yemen, Zabid, Upper and Lower Egypt, Syria and Mesopotamia . At his death (May 8th, 1238) at Damascus, his son Abu Bakr was appointed to succeed with the title Malik al-'Adil Saif al-din; but his elder brother Malik al-Salih Najm al-din Ayyub, having got possession of Damascus, immediately started for Egypt, with the view of adding that country to his dominions: mean-while his uncle Ismail, prince of Hamath, with the prince of Horns, seized Damascus, upon hearing which the troops of Najm al-din deserted him at Nablus, when he fell into the hands of Malik al-Nasir, prince of See also:

• KERAK

Kerak, who carried him off to that city and kept him a prisoner there for a time; after which he was released and allowed to return to Nablus . On the 31st of May 124o the new sultan was arrested at Bilbeis by his own amirs, who sent for Najm al-din to succeed him; and on the 19th of June of the same year Najm al-din entered Cairo as sultan, and imprisoned his brother in the citadel, where he died in 1248 . Meanwhile in 1244 Jerusalem had been finally wrested from the Franks . The administration of Najm al-din is highly praised by Ibn Khallikan, who lived under it . He made large purchases of slaves (Mamelukes) for his army, and when the inhabitants of Cairo complained of their lawlessness, he built See also:

• BARRACKS (derived through the French from the Late Lat. barra, a bar)
• BARRACKS, CAMP

barracks for them on the island of Roda (Raucla); whence they were called Bahri or Nile Mamelukes, which became the name of the first dynasty that originated from them . Much of his time was spent in campaigns in Syria, where the other Ayyubites allied themselves against him with the Crusaders, whereas he accepted the services of the Khwarizmians: eventually he succeeded in recovering most of the Syrian cities .

His name is commemorated by the See also:

• TOWN

town of Salihia, which he built in the year 1246 as a resting-place for his armies on their See also:

• MARCHES, THE (It. Le Marche)

marches through the desert from Egypt to Palestine . In 1249 he was recalled from the siege of Horns by the news of the invasion of Egypt by See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis IX . (the Seventh Crusade), and in spite of illness he hastened to Ushmum See also:

• TANNA (Aramaic, " teacher ")

Tanna, in the neighbourhood of Damietta, which he provisioned for a siege . Damietta was taken on the 6th of June 1249, owing to the See also:

• DESERTION

desertion of his post by the commander Fakhr ud-din, and the See also:

• BANFF

Banff Kinanah, to whom the defence of the place had been entrusted: fifty-four of their chieftains were afterwards executed by the sultan for this proceeding . On the 22nd of November the sultan died of disease at Mansura, but his death was carefully concealed by the amirs Lajin and Aktai, acting in concert with the Queen Shajar al-durr, till the arrival from Syria of the See also:

• HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir to the throne, Turanshah, who was proclaimed some four months later . At the battle of Fariskur, 6th of April 1250, the invaders were utterly routed and the French king fell into the hands of the Egyptian sultan . The Egyptian authorities now resolved to raze Damietta, which, however, was rebuilt shortly after . The sultan, who himself had had no share in the victory, advanced after it from Mansura to Fariskur, where his conduct became menacing to the amirs who had raised him to the throne, and to Shajar al-durr; she in revenge organized an attack upon him which was successful, fire, water, and See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel contributing to his end.99 (6) Period of Bahri . Mamelukes.—The dynasties that succeeded the Ayyubites till the conquest of Egypt by the Ottomans bore the title Dynasties of the Turks, but are more often called Mameluke dynasties, because the sultans were drawn from the enfranchised slaves who constituted the court, and officered the army . The family of the fourth of these sovereigns, Ka'a'un (Qala'un), reigned for to years, but otherwise no sultan was able to found a durable dynasty: after the death of a sultan he was usually succeeded by an infant son, who after a short time was dethroned by a new usurper . After the death of the Sultan Turanshah, his step-mother at first was raised to the vacant throne, when she committed the administration of affairs to the See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

captain of the retainers, Aibek; but the rule of a queen caused See also:

• SCANDAL

scandal to the Moslem world, and Shajar al-durr gave way to this sentiment by marrying Aibek and allowing the title sultan to be conferred on him instead of herself . For policy's See also:

• SAKE

sake, however, Aibek nominally associated with himself on the throne a See also:

• SCION

scion of the Ayyubite house, Malik al-Ashraf Musa, who died in prison (1252 or 1254) .

Aibek meanwhile immediately became involved in war with the Ayyubite Malik al-Nasir, who was in possession of Syria, with whom the caliph induced him after some indecisive actions to make peace: he then successfully quelled a See also:

• MUTINY
• MUTINY (from an old verb " mutine," O. Fr. mutin, meutin, a sedition; cf. mod. Fr. emeute; the original is the Late Lat. mota, commotion, from movere, to move)

mutiny of Mamelukes, whom he compelled to take refuge with the last Abbasid caliph Mostasim in Bagdad and elsewhere . On the Toth of April 1257 Aibek was murdered by his wife Shajar al-durr, who was indignant at his asking for the hand of another queen: but Aibek's followers immediately avenged his death, placing on the throne his infant son Malik al-Mansur, who, however, was almost immediately displaced by his See also:

• GUARDIAN

guardian Kotuz, on the plea that the Mongol danger necessitated the presence of a grown man at the head of affairs . In 126o the Syrian kingdom of al-Nasir was destroyed by Hulaku (Hulagu), the great Mongol chief, founder of the Ilkhan Dynasty (see See also:

• MONGOLS

MONGOLS), who, having finally overthrown the caliph of Bagdad (see CALIPHATE, sect. c . § 37), also despatched a threatening letter to Kotuz; but later in the same year Syria was invaded by Kotuz, who defeated Hulagu's See also:

• LIEUTENANT

lieutenant at the battle of 'Ain Jalut (3rd of September 126o), in consequence of which event the Syrian cities all See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose against the Mongols, and the Egyptian sultan became master of the country with the exception of such places as were still held by the Crusaders . Before Kotuz had reigned a year he was murdered at Salihia by his lieutenant Bibars (October 23rd, 126o), who was piqued, it is said, at the governorship of Aleppo being with-held from him . The sovereignty was seized by this Rine of Bibar& person with the title of Malik al-Qahir, presently altered to al-Z¢hir . He had originally been a slave of Malik al-Sahli, had distinguished himself at the battle after which Louis IX. was captured, and had helped to murder Turanshah . Sultan Bibars, who proved to be one of the most competent of the Bahri Mamelukes, made Egypt the centre of the Moslem world by re-establishing in theory the Abbasid caliphate, which had lapsed through the taking of Bagdad by Hulagu, followed by the execution of the caliph . Bibars recognized the claim of a certain Abu'l-Qasim Ahmed to be the son of Zahir, the 35th Abbasid caliph, and installed him as Commander of the Faithful at Cairo with the title al-Mostansir billdh . Mostansir then proceeded to confer on Bibars the title sultan, and to address to him a See also:

• HOMILY

homily, explaining his duties . This document is preserved in the MS. life of Bibars, and translated by G . Weil .

The sultan appears to have contemplated restoring the new caliph to the throne of Bagdad: the force, however, which he sent with him for the purpose of reconquering Irak was quite insufficient for the purpose, and Mostansir was defeated and slain . This did not prevent Bibars from maintaining his policy of appointing an Abbasid for the purpose of conferring legitimacy on himself; but he encouraged no further attempts at re-establishing the Abbasids at Bagdad, and his principle, adopted by successive sultans, was that the caliph should not leave Cairo except when accompanying the sultan on an expedition . Abbasid caliphate revived . The reign of Bibars was spent largely in successful wars against the Crusaders, from whom he took many cities, notably Safad, Caesarea and See also:

• ANTIOCH

Antioch; the Armenians, whose territory he repeatedly invaded, burning their capital See also:

• SIS (anc. Sision or Siskia, later Flaviopolis or Flavias)

Sis; and the Seljukids of Asia Minor . He further reduced the Ismd'ilians or Assassins, whose existence as a community lasted on in Syria after it had nearly come to an end in Persia . He made Nubia tributary, therein extending Moslem arms farther south than they had been extended by any previous sultan . His authority was before his death recognized all over Syria (with the exception of the few cities still in the power of the Franks), over Arabia, with the exception of Yemen, on the Euphrates from Birah to Kerkesia (Circesium) on the Chaboras (Khabur), whilst the amirs of north-western Africa were tributary to him . His successes were won not only by military and political ability, but also by the most absolute unscrupulousness, neither flagrant See also:

• PERJURY (through the Anglo-Fr. perjurie, modern parjure, Lat. perjurium, a false oath, perjurare, to swear falsely)

perjury nor the basest treachery being disdained . He was the first sultan who acknowledged the equal authority of the four See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of law, and appointed judges belonging to each in Egypt and Syria; he was thus able to. get his measures approved by one school when condemned by another . On the 1st of July 1277 Bibars died, and the events that followed set an example repeatedly followed during the period /[a/a, an. of the Mamelukes . The sultan's son Malik al-Sa'id ascended the throne; but within little more than two years he was compelled to abdicate in favour of his father-in-law Kala'un, a Mameluke who had risen high in the former sovereign's service . The accession of Kala'un was also marked by an attempt on the part of the governor of Damascus to form Syria into an independent kingdom, an attempt frequently imitated on similar occasions .

The Syrian forces were defeated at the battle of Jazurah (April 26th, 128o) and Kala`un resumed possession of the country; but the disaffected Syrians entered into relations with the Mongols, who proceeded to invade Syria, but were finally defeated by Kald'Un on the 30th of October 1281 under the walls of Horns (Emesa) . The conversion to Islam of Nikudar Ahmad, the third of the Ilkhan rulers of Persia, and the consequent troubles in the western • Mongol empire, let to a suspension of hostilities between Egypt and the Ilkhans (see PERSIA: History, § B), though the latter did not cease to agitate in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe for a renewal of the Crusades, with little result . Kala un, without pursuing any career of active conquest, did much to consolidate his dominions, and especially to extend Egyptian commerce, for which purpose he started passports enabling merchants to travel with safety through Egypt and Syria as far as See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India . After the danger from the Mongols had ceased, however, Kala'nn directed his energies towards capturing the last places that remained in the hands of the Franks, and proceeded to take Markab, See also:

• LATAKIA (anc. Laodicea)

Latakia, and See also:

• TRIPOLI
• TRIPOLI (Tarabulus el-Gharb, i.e. Tripoli of the West)
• TRIPOLI, or TARABULUS (anc. Tripolis)

Tripoli (April 26th, 1289) . In 1290 he planned an attack on 'See also:

• ACRE
• ACRE, or AQUIRY

Acre, but died (November loth) in the middle of all his preparations . Under Kala'un we first hear of the Burjite Mamelukes, who owe their name to the citadel (Burj) of Cairo, where 37C 0 of the whole number of 12,000 Mamelukes maintained by this sovereign were quartered . He also set an example, frequently followed, of the practice of dismissing all non-Moslems from government posts: this was often done by his successors with the view of conciliating the Moslems, but it was speedily found that the services of the Jewish and Christian clerks were again required . He further founded a See also:

• HOSPITAL (Lat. haspitalis, the adjective of hospes, host or guest)

hospital for clinical See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research on a scale formerly unknown . Kala'un was followed by his son Khalil (Malik al-Ashraf Salah al-din), who carried out his father's policy of See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving the Franks out of Syria and Palestine, and proceeded with the siege of Acre, which he took (May 18th, 1291) after a siege of forty-three days . The capture and destruction of this important place were followed by the capture of Tyre, See also:

• SIDON (Phoen. ins, Hebrew 1-rs, Assyr. Sidunnu, Egypt. Diduna)

Sidon, Haifa, Athlit and See also:

• BEIRUT

Beirut, and thus Syria was cleared of the Crusaders . He also planned an expedition against the prince of Lesser Armenia, which was averted by the surrender of Behesna, See also:

• MARASH (anc. Germanicia-Marasion)

Marash and Tell IJamdun . The disputes between his favourite, the vizier Ibn al-Sa'lus, and his viceroy Baidara. led to his being murdered bythe latter (December 12th, 1293), who was proclaimed sultan, but almost immediately fell a victim to the vengeance of the deceased sultan's party, who placed a younger son of Kala'un, Makommed Malik al-Nasir, on the throne .

This Malik prince had the singular fortune of reigning three times, aFNaslh, being twice dethroned: he was first installed on the 14th of December 1293, when he was nine years old, and the affairs of the kingdom were undertaken by a See also:

• CABINET

cabinet, consisting of a vizier ('Alam al-din Sinjar), a viceroy (Kitboga), a war minister (IJusam al-din Lajin al-Rumi), a prefect of the palace (Rokneddin Bibars Jashengir) and a secretary of state (Rokneddin Bibars Mansuri) . This cabinet naturally split into rival camps, in consequence of which Kitboga, himself a Mongol, with the aid of other Mongols who had come into Egypt after the battle of Holm, succeeded in ousting his rivals, and presently, with the aid of the surviving assassins of the former sultan, compelling Malik al-Nasir to abdicate in his favour (December 1st, 1294) . The usurper was, however, able to maintain himself for two years only, famine and pestilence which prevailed in Egypt and Syria during his reign rendering him unpopular, while his arbitrary treatment of the amirs also gave offence . He was dethroned in 1296, and one of the murderers of Khalil, IJusam al-din Lajin, son-in-law of the sultan Bibars and formerly governor of Damascus, installed in his palace (November 26th, 1296) . It had become the practice of the Egyptian sultans to bestow all offices of importance on their own freedmen (Mamelukes) to the exclusion of the older amirs, whom they could not See also:

• TRUST

trust so well, but who in turn became still more disaffected . IJusam al-din fell a victim to the jealousy of the older amirs whom he had incensed by bestowing arbitrary power on his own Mameluke Mengutimur, and was murdered on the 16th of January 1299 . His short reign was marked by some fairly successful incursions into Armenia, and the recovery of the fortresses Marash and Tell Hamdun, which had been retaken by the Armenians . He also instituted a fresh survey and division of land in Egypt and Syria, which occasioned much discontent . After his murder the deposed sultan Malik al-Nasir, who had been living in retirement at Kerak, was recalled by the army and reinstated as sultan in Cairo (February 7th, 1299), though still only fourteen years of age, so that public affairs were administered not by him, but by See also:

• SALA, GEORGE AUGUSTUS HENRY (1828-1895)

Sala. the viceroy, and Bibars Jashengir, prefect of the palace . The 7th Ilkhan, Ghazan Mahmud, took advantage of the disorder in the Mameluke empire to invade Syria in the latter half of 1299, when his forces inflicted a severe defeat on those of the new sultan, and seized several cities, including the capital Damascus, of which, however, they were unable to storm the citadel; in 1300, when a fresh army was collected in Egypt, the Mongols evacuated Damascus and made no attempt to secure their other conquests . The fear of further Mongolian invasion led to the See also:

• IMPOSITION (from Lat. imponere, to place or lay upon)

imposition of fresh taxes in both Egypt and Syria, including one of 33% on rents, which occasioned many complaints . The invasion did not take place till 1303, when at the battle of Marj al-Saffar (April loth) the Mongols were defeated .

This was the last time that the Ilkhans gave the Egyptian sultans serious trouble; and in the letter written in the sultan's name to the Ilkhan announcing the victory, the former suggested that the caliphate of Bagdad should be restored to the titular Abbasid caliph who had accompanied the Egyptian expedition, a See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion which does not appear to have led to any actual steps being taken . The fact that the Mongols were in ostensible alliance with Christian princes led to a renewal by the sultan of the ordinances against Jews and Christians which had often been abrogated, as often renewed and again fallen into See also:

• ABEYANCE (O. Fr. abeance, " gaping")

abeyance; and their renewal led to See also:

• MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

missions from various Christian princes requesting milder terms for their co-religionists . The amirs Salar and Bibars having usurped the whole of the sultan's authority, he, after some futile attempts to free himself of them, under the pretext of pilgrimage to Mecca, retired in March 1309 to Kerak, whence he sent his See also:

• ABDICATION (Lat. abdicatio, disowning, renouncing, from ab, from, and dicare, to declare, to proclaim as not belonging to one)

abdication to Cairo; in consequence of which, on the 5th of April 1309, Bibars Jashengir was proclaimed sultan, with the title Malik al-Moza,See also:

• JAR

Jar . This prince was originally a freedman Mongol wars . of Kala'un, and was the first Circassian who ascended the throne of Egypt . Before the year was out the new sultan had been rendered unpopular by the occurrence of a famine, and Malik al-Nasir was easily able to induce the Syrian amirs to return to his allegiance, in consequence of which Bibars in his turn abdicated, and Malik al-Nasir re-entered Cairo as sovereign on the 5th of March 1310 . He soon found the means to execute both Bibars and Salar, while other amirs who had been eminent under the former regime fled to the Mongols . The relations between their Ilkhan and the Egyptian sultan continued strained, and the 8th Ilkhan Oeljeitu (1304—1316) addressed letters to Philip the See also:

• FAIR

Fair and the See also:

• ENGLISH

English king See also:

• EDWARD

Edward I . (answered by Edward II. in 1307), desiring aid against Malik al-Nasir; and for many years the courts of the sultan and the Ilkhan continued to be the refuge of malcontents from the other kingdom . Finally in 1322 terms of peace and alliance were agreed on between the sultan and Abu Said the 9th Ilkhan . The sultan also entered into relations with the Mongols of the See also:

• GOLDEN

Golden Horde and in 1319 married a daughter of the reigning prince Uzbeg Khan (see MONGOLS: Golden Horde) . Much of Malik al-Nasir's third administration was spent in raids into Nubia, where he endeavoured to set up a creature of his own as sovereign, in attempts at bringing the Bedouins of south-eastern Egypt into subordination, and in persecuting the See also:

• NOSAIRIS (also known as Ansayrii, sometimes Ansariyeh)

Nosairis, whose See also:

• HERESY

heresy became formidable about this time .

Like other Egyptian sultans he made considerable use of the Assassins, 124 of whom were sent by him into Persia to execute Kara Sonkor, at one time governor of Damascus, and one of the murderers of Malik al-Ashraf; but they were all outwitted by the exile, who was finally poisoned by the Ilkhan in recompense for a similar service rendered by the Egyptian sultan . For a time Malik al-Nasir was recognized as suzerain in north Africa, the Arabian Irak, and Asia Minor, but he was unable to make any permanent conquests in any of these countries . He brought Medina, which had previously been governed by independent sherifs, to acknowledge his authority . His See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic relations were more extensive than those of any previous sultan, and included Bulgarian, Indian, and Abyssinian potentates, as well as the See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

pope, the king of See also:

• ARAGON, or ARRAGON (in Span. Aragon)

Aragon and the king of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France . He appears to have done his utmost to protect his Christian subjects, incurring thereby the reproaches of the more fanatical Moslems, especially in the year 1320 when owing to See also:

• INCENDIARISM (Lat. incendere, to set on fire, burn)

incendiarism in Cairo there was danger of a general massacre of the Christian population . His internal administration was marked by See also:

• GROSS

gross extravagance, which led to his viziers being forced to practise violent extortion for which they afterwards suffered . He paid considerable attention to See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep-breeding and agriculture, and by a canal which he had dug from Fuah to Alexandria not only assisted commerce but brought loo,000 feddans under cultivation . His taste for building and street improvement led to the beautifying of Cairo, and his example was followed by the governors of other great cities in the empire, notably Aleppo and Damascus . He paid exceptionally high prices for Mamelukes, many of whom were sold by their Mongol parents to his agents, and accustomed them to greater luxury than was usual under his predecessors . In 1315 he instituted a survey of Egypt, and of the twenty-four parts into which it was divided ten were assigned to the sultan and fourteen to the amirs and the army . He took occasion to abolish a variety of vexatious imposts, and the new See also:

• BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as bulga, leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. bougette, from which the Eng. form is derived)

budget fell less heavily on the Christians than the old . Among the See also:

• LITERARY

literary ornaments of his reign was the historian and geographer Ismail See also:

• ABULFEDA [Abu l-Fida' Ismail ibn 'Ali 'Imad-ud-Dni] (1273-1331)

Abulfeda (q.v.), to whom Malik al-Nasir restored the government of Hamath, which had belonged to his ancestors, and even gave the title sultan .

He died on the 7th of June 1341 . The son, Abu Bakr, to whom he had left the throne, was able to maintain himself only a few months on it, being compelled to abdicate on the 4th of August 1341 in favour of his infant brother Kuchuk; the revolution was brought about by Kausun, a powerful Mameluke of the preceding monarch . This person's authority was, however, soon overthrown by a party formed by the Syrian prefects, and on the 11th of January Malik al-Nasir Ahmad, an elder son of the former sultan of the same title, was installed in his place, though he did not actually arrive in Cairo till the 6th of November, being unwilling to leave Kerak, where he had been living in retirement . After a brief sojourn in Cairo he speedily returned thither, thereby forfeiting his throne, which was conferred by the amirs on his brother Ismail al-Malik al-Sal See also:

• ILI

ili (June 27th, 1342) . This sultan was mainly occupied during his short reign with besieging and taking Kerak, whither Abmad had taken refuge, and himself died on the 3rd of August 1345, when another son of Malik al-Nasir, named Sha`ban, was placed on the throne . The constant changes of sultan led to great disorder in the provinces, and many of the subject principalities endeavoured to shake off the Egyptian yoke . Sha'ban proved no more competent than his predecessors, being given to open debauchery and profligacy, an example followed by his amirs; and fresh discontent led to his being deposed by the Syrian amirs, when his brother Hajji was proclaimed sultan in his place (September 18th, 1346) . Hajji was deposed and killed on the loth of December 1347, and another infant son of Malik al-Nasir, Hasan, who took his father's title, was proclaimed, the real power being shared by three amirs, Sheikhun, Menjek and Yelbogha Arus . During this reign (1348—1349) Egypt was visited by the " See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black Death," which is said' to have carried off 900,000 of the inhabit-ants of Cairo and to have raged as far south as Assuan . Towards the beginning of 1351 the sultan got rid of his guardians and attempted to rule by himself; but though successful in war, his arbitrary measures led to his being dethroned on the 21st of August 1351 by the amirs, who proclaimed his brother Salili with the title of Malik al-Salilc . He too was only fourteen years of age . The power was contested for by various See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of amirs, whose struggles ended with the deposition of the sultan Salil} on the loth of October 1354, and the reinstatement of his brother Hasan, who was again dethroned on the 16th of March 1361 by an amir Yelbogha, whom he had offended, and who, having got possession of the sultan's person, murdered him .

The next day a son of the dethroned sultan Hajji was proclaimed sultan with the title Malik al-Mansur . On the 29th of May 1363 this sultan was also dethroned on the ground of incompetence, and his place was given to another grandson of Malik al-Nasir, Sha`ban, son of Hosain, then ten years old . The amir Yelbogha at first held all real power and is said to have acquired a degree of authority which no other subject ever held . During this reign, on the 8th of October 1365, a landing was effected at Alexandria by a Frankish fleet under See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter I. of Cyprus, which presently took possession of the city; the .Franks were speedily compelled to embark again after plundering the city, for which See also:

• COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

compensation was afterwards demanded by Yelbogha from the Christian population of Egypt and Syria . Alexandria was further made the seat of a viceroy, having previously only had a prefect . On the filth of December 1366 Yelbogha was himself attacked by the sultan, captured and slain . His successor in the office of first minister was a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere See also:

• TOOL (0. Eng. tdl, generally referred to a root seen in the Goth. taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or dress leather)

tool in the hands of his Mamelukes, who compelled him to See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

institute and depose governors, &c., at their See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure . In 1374 the Egyptians raided See also:

• CILICIA

Cilicia and captured See also:

• LEO
• LEO (THE LION)
• LEO, BROTHER (d. c. 1270)
• LEO, HEINRICH (1799-1878)
• LEO, JOHANNES (c. 1494-1552)
• LEO, LEONARDO (1694–1744)

Leo VI., prince of Lesser Armenia, which now became an Egyptian province with a Moslem governor . On the 15th of March 1377 the sultan was murdered by the Mamelukes, owing to his refusing a largess of money which they demanded . The infant son of the late sultan `Ali, a lad of eight years, was See also:

• PRO

pro-claimed with the title Malik al-Mansur; the power was in the hands of the ministers Kartai and Ibek, the latter of whom over-threw the former with the aid of his own Mamelukes, Berekeh and Barkuk . An insurrection in Syria which spread to Egypt presently caused the fall of Ibek, and led to the occupation of the highest posts by the Circassian freedmen Berekeh and Barkuk, of whom the latter ere long succeeded in ousting the former and usurping the sultan's place; on the 19th of May 1381, when the sultan `Ali died, his place was given to an infant brother Hajji, but on the 26th of November 1382, Barkuk set this See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child aside and had himself proclaimed sultan (with the title Malik al-Zahir), thereby ending the Bahri dynasty and commencing that of the Circassians . For a short period, however, Hajji Decline of the Bahri power .

was restored, when on the 1st of June 1389 Cairo was taken by Yelbogha, governor of Damascus, and Barkuk expelled; IIajji reigned at first under the guardianship of Yelbogha, who was then overthrown by Mintash; Barkuk, who had been relegated to Kerak, succeeded in again forming a party, and in a battle fought at Shakhab, January 1390, succeeded in gaining possession of the person of the sultan Ilajji, and on the 21st of January he was again proclaimed sultan in Cairo . (7) Period of Burji Mamelukes . Barkuk presently entered into relations with the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I., and by slaying an envoy of Timur incurred the displeasure of the world- conqueror; and in 1394 led an army into Syria with the view of restoring the Jelairid Ilkhan Ahmad to Bagdad (as Barkuk's vassal), and meeting the Mongol invasion . Barkuk, however, died (June loth, 1399) before Timur had time to invade Syria . According to the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom that had so often proved disastrous, a young son of Barkuk, Faraj, then aged thirteen, was appointed sultan under the guardianship of two amirs . Incursions were immediately made by the Ottoman sultan into the territory of Egyptian vassals at Derendeh and Albistan (Ablestin), and See also:

• MALATIA (MALATIEH or Aspuzu)

Malatia was besieged by his forces . Timur, who was at this time beginning his campaign against Bayezid, turned his atten- tion first to Syria, and on the 3oth of October 1400 defeated the Syrian amirs near Aleppo, and soon got possession of the city and the citadel . He proceeded to take Hamah, Horns (Emesa) and other towns, and on the loth of December started for Damascus . An endeavour was made by the Egyptian sultan to relieve Damascus, but the news of an insurrection in Cairo caused him to retire and leave the place to its fate . In the first three months of 1401 the whole of Northern Syria suffered from Timur's marauders . In the following year (September 29th, 1402) Timur who had in the interval inflicted a crushing defeat on the Ottoman sultan, sent to demand homage from Faraj, and his demand was readily granted, together with the delivery of the princes who had sought refuge from Timur in Egyptian territory . The death of Timur in February 1405 restored Egyptian authority in Syria, which, however, became a See also:

• RENDEZVOUS

rendezvous for all who were discontented with the rule of Faraj and his amirs, and two months after Timur's death was in open rebellion against Faraj .

Although Faraj succeeded in defeating the rebels, he was compelled by insubordination on the part of his Circassian Mamelukes to abdicate (September loth, 1405), when his brother Abd al-'aziz was proclaimed with the title Malik al-Mansur; after two months this prince was deposed, and Faraj, who had been in hiding, recalled . Most of his reign was, however, occupied with revolts on the part of the Syrian amirs, to quell whom he repeatedly visited Syria; the leaders of the rebels were the amirs Newruz and Sheik Malunudi, afterwards sultan . Owing to disturbances and misgovernment the population of Egypt and Syria is said to have shrunk to a third in his time, and he offended public sentiment not only by debauchery, but by having his image stamped on his coins . On the 23rd of May 1412, after being defeated and shut up in Damascus, he was compelled by Sheik Mabmudi to abdicate, and an Abbasid caliph, Mosta'in, was proclaimed sultan, only to be forced to abdicate on the 6th of November of the same year in Sheik's favour, who took the title Malik al-Mu'ayyad, his colleague Newruz having been previously sent to Syria, where he was to be autocrat by the terms of their agreement . In the struggle which naturally followed between the two, Newruz was shut up in Damascus, defeated and slain . Sheik himself invaded Asia Minor and forced the See also:

• TURKOMAN

Turkoman states to acknowledge his suzerainty . After the sultan's return they soon rebelled, but were again brought into subjection by Sheik's son Ibrahim; his victories excited the envy of his father, who is said to have poisoned him . Sheik himself died a few months after the decease of his son (January 13th, 1421), and another infant son, Ahmad, was proclaimed with the title Malik al-Mozaffar, the See also:

• PROCLAMATION (Lat. proclamare, to make public by announcement)

proclamation being followed by the usual dissensions between the amirs, ending with the See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption of supreme power by the amir Tatar, who, after defeating his rivals, on the 29th of August 1421 had himself proclaimed sultan with the title Malik al-Zahir . This usurper, however, died on the 30th of November of the same year, leaving the throne to an infant son Mohammed, who was given the title Malik al-Salih; the See also:

• REGULAR

regular intrigues between the amirs followed, leading to his being dethroned on the following 1st of April 1422, when the amir appointed to be his See also:

• TUTOR (Lat. tutor, guardian, tueri, to watch over, protect)

tutor, Barsbai, was proclaimed sultan with the title Malik al-Ashraf . This sultan avenged the attacks on Alexandria re- peatedly made by See also:

• CYPRIAN, SAINT [Caecilius Cyprianus, called THASCIUS] (c. 200–258)

Cyprian ships, for he sent a fleet wars wtth which burned See also:

• LIMASOL

Limasol, and another which took powers . See also:

• FAMAGUSTA (Gr. Ammochostos)

Famagusta (August 4th, 1425), but failed in the endeavour to annex the island permanently . An expedition sent in the following year (1426) succeeded in taking captive the king of Cyprus, who was brought to Cairo and presently released for a See also:

• RANSOM (from Lat. redemptio, through Fr. rancon)

ransom of 200,000 dinars, on condition of acknowledging the suzerainty of the Egyptian sultan and paying him an annual tribute .

Barsbai appears to have excelled his predecessors in the invention of devices for exacting money from merchants and pilgrims, and in juggling with the exchange . This led to a See also:

• NAVAL

naval demonstration on the part of the Venetians, who secured better terms for their trade, and to the seizure of Egyptian vessels by the king of Aragon and the prince of See also:

• CATALONIA (Cataluna)

Catalonia . In a census made during Barsbai's reign, it was found that the total number of towns and villages in Egypt had sunk to 2170, whereas in the 4th century A.11. it had stood at io,000 . Much of Barsbai's attention was occupied with raids into Asia Minor, where the Dhu '1-Kadiri Turkomans frequently rebelled, and with wars against Kara Yelek, prince of Amid, and Shah Rokh, son of Timur . Barsbai died on the 7th of June 1438 . In accordance with the custom of his predecessors he left the throne to a son still in his minority, Abu'l-Mandsin Yusuf, who took the title Malik al-'Aziz, but as usual after a few months he was displaced by the regent Jakmak, who on the 9th of September 1438 was proclaimed sultan with the title Malik al-Zahir . In the years 1442—1444 this sultan sent three fleets against See also:

• RHODES
• RHODES, CECIL JOHN (1853-1902)
• RHODES, JAMES FORD

Rhodes, where the third effected a landing, but was unable to make any permanent conquest . In consequence of a lengthy illness Jakmak abdicated on the 1st of February 1453, when his son