See also:

• ZODIAC (o i'w&arcds rvKcXor, from d,&ov, " a little animal ")

ZODIAC (o i'w&arcds rvKcXor, from d,&ov, " a little See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal ")  , in See also:

• ASTRONOMY (from Gr. &arpov, a star, and v ,usiv, to classify or arrange)

astronomy and See also:

• ASTROLOGY

astrology, an imaginary See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone of the heavens within which See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie the paths of the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun, See also:

• MOON (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maan, Dan. maane, &c., and cognate with such Indo-Germanic forms as Gr. µlip, Sans. ma's, Irish mi, &c.; Lat. uses luna, i.e. lucna, the shining one, lucere, to shine, for the moon, but preserves the word i
• MOON, SIR RICHARD, 1ST BARONET (1814-1899)

moon and See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• PLANETS, MINOR

planets . It is bounded by two circles equidistant from the See also:

• ECLIPTIC

ecliptic, about eighteen degrees apart; and it is divided into twelve signs, and marked by twelve constellations . These twelve constellations, with the symbols of the signs which correspond to them, are as follows: See also:

• LIBRA (" THE BALANCE ")

Libra, the See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

Balance See also:

• SCORPIO ("THE SCORPION")

Scorpio, the See also:

• SCORPION (Lat. Scorpio)

Scorpion 111 See also:

• SAGITTARIUS (" the archer ")

Sagittarius, the See also:

• ARCHER, WILLIAM (1856— )

Archer 7r See also:

• CAPRICORNUS (:` THE GOAT ")

Capricornus, the See also:

• GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. gat, Goth. gaits, Mod. Ger. Geiss, cognate with Lat. haedus, a kid)

Goat See also:

• AQUARIUS (the " Water-bearer " or " Cup-bearer ")

Aquarius, the See also:

• WATER

Water-See also:

• CARRIER
• CARRIER, JEAN BAPTISTE (1956-1794)

carrier es; See also:

• PISCES (the fishes)

Pisces, the Fishes 3E ' See also:

• GORDON
• GORDON, ADAM LINDSAY (1833—1870)
• GORDON, ALEXANDER (c. 1692—c. 1754)
• GORDON, CHARLES GEORGE (1833-'885)
• GORDON, LEON
• GORDON, LORD GEORGE (1751-1793)
• GORDON, PATRICK (1635–1699)
• GORDON, SIR JOHN WATSON (1788—1864)

Gordon and Zobeir met in See also:

• CAIRO
• CAIRO (Arabic Misr-al-Kahira, or simply Misr)

Cairo on the 25th and 26th of See also:

• JANUARY

January (see See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt No . 12 of 1884) and Gordon from that See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time onward asked for Zobeir's help . It was not, however, until the loth of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March that his wish was made public, in a telegram from See also:

• KHARTUM

Khartum published in The Times . xxV111 . 32 The signs—the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek &eBeKarrTh6pta--are geometrical divisions See also:

• THIRTY

thirty degrees in extent, counted from the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring See also:

• EQUINOX (from the Lat. aequus, equal, and nox, night)

equinox in the direction of the sun's progress through them . The whole See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series accordingly shifts westward through the effect of precession by about one degree in seventy-two years . At the moment of See also:

• CROSSING

crossing the See also:

• EQUATOR (Late Lat. aequator, from aequare, to make equal)

equator towards the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north the sun is said to be at the first point of See also:

• ARIES (" The Ram ")

Aries; some thirty days later it enters See also:

• TAURUS (" the Bull ")

Taurus, and so on through See also:

• GEMINI (" The Twins," i.e. Castor and Pollux)

Gemini, See also:

• CANCER (" THE CRAB ")
• CANCER, LUIS (d. 1549)
• CANCER, or CARCINOMA (from Lat. cancer, Gr. KapKivwga, an eating ulcer)

Cancer, See also:

• LEO
• LEO (THE LION)
• LEO, BROTHER (d. c. 1270)
• LEO, HEINRICH (1799-1878)
• LEO, JOHANNES (c. 1494-1552)
• LEO, LEONARDO (1694–1744)

Leo, See also:

• VIRGO (" the Virgin ")

Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius and Pisces . The constellations bearing the same names coincided approximately in position, when See also:

• HIPPARCHUS (fl. 146-126 B.c.)

Hipparchus observed them at See also:

• RHODES
• RHODES, CECIL JOHN (1853-1902)
• RHODES, JAMES FORD

Rhodes, with the divisions they designate . The discrepancy now, how-ever, amounts to the entire breadth of a sign, the sun's path in Aries lying among the stars of Pisces, in Taurus among those of Aries, &c . See also:

• ASSYRIA

Assyria and Babylonia.—The twelvefold See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of the See also:

• ZODIAC (o i'w&arcds rvKcXor, from d,&ov, " a little animal ")

zodiac was evidently suggested by the occurrence of twelve full moons in successive parts of it in the course of each See also:

• YEAR

year .

This approximate relation was first systematically See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed by the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early inhabitants of See also:

• MESOPOTAMIA (Mevoaora)

Mesopotamia, and formed the starting-point for all their divisions of time . As the year separated, as it were of itself, into twelve months, so the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day was divided into twelve " See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours," and the See also:

• GREAT

great cosmical See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of 43,200 years into twelve " sars." Each sar, See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month and See also:

• HOUR

hour was represented at once visibly and symbolically by a twelfth See also:

• PART

part of the " furrow " See also:

• DRAWN

drawn by the See also:

• SOLAR, SOLLER (Lat. solarium, Fr.• galetas, Ital. solaio)

solar See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

Bull across the heavens . The See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of tracing the sun's path among the stars was, when it occurred to Chaldaean astronomers, an See also:

• ORIGINAL

original and, relatively to their means, a recondite one . We owe to its realization by them the constitution and nomenclature of the twelve signs of the zodiac . See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian cylinders and See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions indicate for the See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar series of our See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text-books an antiquity of some four thousand years . Ages before See also:

• ASSUR
• ASSUR (Auth. Vera. Asshur)

Assur-bani-See also:

• PAL, KRISTO DAS (1839–1884)

pal reigned at See also:

• NINEVEH (Heb. m}'?, in classical authors Nivos, Ninus; LXX. Ntsetni, Nnveun: Assyrian Nind or Ninua)

Nineveh the eighth month (Marchesvan) was known as' " the month of the See also:

• STAR

star of the Scorpion," the tenth (Tebet) belonged to the " star of the Goat," the twelfth (Adar) to the " star of the See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

Fish of See also:

• EA(nar...), (p.s„,.,.)
• EA(psr...), (p, „...)• (pqr...)

Ea." 2 The See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive underlying the choice of symbols is in a few cases obvious, but in most remains conjectural . The attributes of the deities appointed to preside over the months and signs were to some extent influential . Two of them, in-See also:

• DEED (in O. Eng. dead, from the stem of the verb " to do ")

deed, took See also:

• DIRECT

direct See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of their respective portions of the See also:

• SKY (M. Eng. skie, cloud; O. Eng. skua, shade; connected with an Indo-European root sku, cover, whence " scum," Lat. obscurus, dark, &c.)

sky . The zodiacal Virgo is held to represent the Assyrian See also:

• VENUS

Venus, See also:

• ISHTAR

Ishtar, the ruling divinity of the See also:

• SIXTH

sixth month, and Sagittarius the archer-See also:

• GOD

god See also:

• NERGAL

Nergal, to whom the ninth month was dedicated . But no See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform See also:

• SYSTEM

system of selection was pursued; or rather perhaps the results of several systems, adopted at various epochs, and under the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of varying currents of ideas, became amalgamated in the final series . This, there is See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to believe, was the upshot of a pre-historic reform . So far as See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive records go, Aries was always the first sign .

But the arrangement is, on the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of it, a comparatively See also:

• MODERN

modern one . None of the See also:

• AMES
• AMES, FISHER (1758–1808)
• AMES, JOSEPH (1689–1759)
• AMES, OAKES (1804–1873)
• AMES, WILLIAM (1576–1633)

Ames. brighter stars of the See also:

• CONSTELLATION (from the Lat. constellatus, studded with stars; co'n, with, and Stella, a star)

constellation could be said even roughly to See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark the equinox much before 'Soo B.C.; during a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long stretch of previous time the leading position belonged to the stars of Taurus.3 Numerous indications accordingly point to a corresponding See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive zodiac . Setting aside as doubtful See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence derived from interpretations of See also:

• CUNEIFORM (from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

cuneiform inscriptions, we meet, in connexion with Mithraic and Mylittic legends, reminiscences of a zodiac and religious See also:

• CALENDAR

calendar in which the Bull led the way.' See also:

• VIRGIL (PUBLIUS VERGILIUS MARC)
• VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555)

Virgil's Candidus auratis aperit cum cornibus annum Taurus perpetuates the tradition . And the See also:

• PLEIADES
• PLEIADES, ATLANTIDES

Pleiades continued, within See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical memory, to be the first asterism of the lunar zodiac . 2 See also:

• LENORMANT, FRANCOIS (1837–1883)

Lenormant, Origines de l'Histoire, i . 236 . 3 The possibility should not, however, be overlooked that the " stars of the months " were determined by their See also:

• HELIACAL

heliacal risings (see Bosanquet and See also:

• SAYCE, ARCHIBALD HENRY (1846- )

Sayce on Babylonian astronomy, in Monthly Notices See also:

• ROY, WILLIAM (1726-1790)

Roy . Astr . See also:

• SOC

Soc: xl . 117) . This would give a further See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension backwards of over woo years, during which the equinox might have occurred in the month of the See also:

• RAM
• RAM, PIERRE FRANCOIS XAVIER DE (18o4-1865)

Ram . 4 J .

B . F . Lajard, Recherches sur he Culte de Mithra, p . 605 . 'r Aries, the Ram Taurus, the Bull Gemini, the Twins Cancer, the Crab Leo, the See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

Lion Virgo, the Virgin rf' f12 In the Chaldaean signs fragments of several distinct strata of thought appear to be embedded . From one point of view they See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

shadow out the great epic of the destinies of the human See also:

• RACE

race; again, the universal solar myth claims a See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in them; hoary traditions were brought into ex See also:

• POST

post facto connexion with them; or they served to commemorate See also:

• SIMPLE

simple meteorological and astronomical facts . The first Babylonian month Nisan, dedicated to See also:

• ANU

Anu and See also:

• BEL

Bel, was that of " See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice "; and its association with the Ram as the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief primitive See also:

• OBJECT

object of sacrifice is thus intelligible.' According to an alternative explanation, the heavenly Ram, placed as See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader in front of the See also:

• FLOCK

flock of the stars, merely em-bodied a spontaneous figure of the popular See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination . An See also:

• ANTIQUE (Lat. antiquus, old)

antique persuasion, that the See also:

• GRAND

grand See also:

• CYCLE
• CYCLE (Gr. KUK)^os, a circle)

cycle of creation opened under the first sign, has. been transmitted to modern See also:

• COGNIZANCE (Lat. cognoscere, to know)

cognizance by See also:

• DANTE

Dante (Inf. i . 38) . The human race, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, was Taurus. supposed to have come into being under Taurus . The solar See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation of the sign goes back to the far-off time when the year began with Taurus, and the sun was conceived of as a bull entering upon the great furrow of See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven as he ploughed his way among the stars . In the third ~emlal. month and sign the See also:

• BUILDING

building of the first See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city and the fratricidal See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers—theRomulus and Remus of See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend—were brought to mind .

The appropriate See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol was at first indifferently a See also:

• PILE

pile of bricks or two male See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children, always Cancen on early monuments placed feet to feet . The retro- grade See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of a crab typified, by an easy association of ideas, the See also:

• RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back)

retreat of the sun from his farthest See also:

• NORTHERN

northern excursion, and Cancer was constituted the sign of the L ~ summer See also:

• SOLSTICE (Lat. solstitium, from sal, sun, and sistere, to stand still)

solstice . The Lion, as the symbol of See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire, represented the See also:

• CULMINATION (from Lat. culmen, summit)

culmination of the solar See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat . In the sixth month, the descent of Ishtar to Hades in See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search vireo of her lost See also:

• HUSBAND

husband Tammuz was celebrated, and the sign of the Virgin had thus a purely mythological signification . The See also:

• HISTORY

history of the seventh sign is somewhat complicated . The earlier Greek writers—See also:

• EUDOXUS

Eudoxus, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus—knew of only eleven zodiacal symbols, but made one do double See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty, extending the Scorpion across the seventh and eighth divisions . The Balance, obviously indicating the equality of day and See also:

• NIGHT

night, is first mentioned as the sign of the Libra autumnal equinox by Geminus and See also:

• VARRO, MARCUS TERENTIUS (116—27 B.C.)
• VARRO, PUBLIUS TERENTIUS

Varro, and ob- and tamed, through See also:

• SOSIGENES

Sosigenes of See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria, See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official re-Scorpio. See also:

• COGNITION (Latin cognitio, from cognoscere, to become acquainted with)

cognition in the See also:

• JULIAN (FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS JULIANUS) (331-363)

Julian calendar . Nevertheless, Virgil (Georg. i . 32) regarded the space it presided over as so much See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste See also:

• LAND

land, provisionally occupied by the " Claws " of the Scorpion, but readily available for the See also:

• APOTHEOSIS (Gr. aaoOeou)

apotheosis of See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus . Libra was not of Greek invention . See also:

• PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS)

Ptolemy,.who himself chiefly used the " Claws " (XrtXai), speaks of it as a distinctively Chaldaean sign;2 and it occurs as an extra-zodiacal asterism in the See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere . An See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Chinese See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, moreover, prescribed the regularization of weights and See also:

• MEASURES

measures at the spring equinox .3 No See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation of the. seventh sign has yet been discovered on any Euphratean See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

monument; but it is noticeable that the eighth is frequently doubled,' and it is difficult to avoid seeing in the pair of zodiacal scorpions carved on Assyrian cylinders the prototype of the Greek scorpion and claws .

Both Libra and the sign it eventually superseded thus owned a Chaldaean birthplace . The struggle of See also:

• RIVAL

rival systems of nomenclature, from which our zodiacal series resulted, is plainly visible in their alternations; and the claims of the competing signs were long sought to be conciliated by representing the Balance as held between the claws of the Scorpion . The definitive decline of the sun's See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power after the autumnal ' Sayce, Transactions of the Society of Biblical See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

Archaeology, iii . 162 . 2 In citing a Chaldaean observation of See also:

• MERCURY
• MERCURY (MERCU1uus)
• MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight = 2oo)

Mercury dating from 235 B.C . (Almagest, ii . 170, ed . See also:

• HALMA (Greek for " jump ")

Halma) . ' See Uranographie Chinoise, by Gustav See also:

• SCHLEGEL, AUGUST WILHELM VON (1767-1845)
• SCHLEGEL, JOHANN ELIAS (1719-1749)
• SCHLEGEL, KARL WILHELM FRIEDRICH VON (1772-1829)

Schlegel, who, however, claims an extravagant antiquity for the Chinese constellational system . Lenormant, Origines, i . 267.equinox was typified by placing a Scorpion as the symbol of darkness in the eighth sign . Sagittarius, figured later as a Centaur, stood for the Babylonian See also:

• MARS
• MARS (MAYORS, MARMAR, MARSPITER GA MASPITER)
• MARS, MLLE [ANNE FRANCOISE HYPPOLYTE BOUTET] (1779-1847)

Mars .

Capricornus sagit- the sign of the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter solstice, is plausibly connected tarius . with the caprine See also:

• NURSE (a shortened form of the earlier " nourice," adapted through the French from Lat. nutrix, nu/rite, to nourish)

nurse of the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young solar god in See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental legends, of which that of See also:

• ZEUS

Zeus and Amalthia is a Caprivariant.6 The fish-tailed Goat of the zodiac presents See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn us . a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy with the Mexican calendar sign Cipactli, a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of marine See also:

• MONSTER (Lat. monstrum, from root of monere, to warn; i.e. something terrible or portentous)
• MONSTER, GEORG, COUNT ZU (1776-1844)

monster resembling a See also:

• NARWHAL

narwhal .6 Aquarius is a still more exclusively meteorological sign than Leo . The See also:

• ELEVENTH

eleventh month was known in Euphratean regions as that of " want and See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain." The See also:

• DELUGE, THE (through the Fr. from Lat. diluvium, flood, diluere, to wash away)

deluge was tradi- Aquarius . tionally associated with it . It was represented in zodiacal symbolism by the god Ramman, crowned with a See also:

• TIARA (Gr. -papa)

tiara and pouring water from a See also:

• VASE
• VASE (through Fr. from Lat. vas, a vessel, pl. vasa, of which the singular vasum is rarely found; the ultimate root is probably was-, to cover, seen in Lat: vestis, clothing, Eng. " vest," Gr. to-th c, and also in " wear," of garments)

vase, or more generally by the vase and water without the god . The resumption of agricultural labours after the deluge was commemorated in the twelfth month, and a mystical association of the fishes, which were its Pisces. sign, with the See also:

• LIFE

life after See also:

• DEATH

death is evident in a monu- ment of Assyrian origin described by Clermont-Ganneau, showing a See also:

• CORPSE (Lat. corpus, the body)

corpse guarded by a pair of fish-gods .? The doubling of the sign of Pisces still recalls, according to Sayce,s the arrangement of the Babylonian calendar, in which a year of 36o days was supplemented once in six years by a thirteenth month, a second Adar . To the double month corresponded the double sign of the " Fishes of Hea."9 Cyclical Meaning of the See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

Succession of Ssgns.—The cyclical meaning of the succession of zodiacal signs, though now obscured by interpolations and substitutions, was probably once clear and entire . It is curiously reflected in the adventures of the Babylonian See also:

• HERCULES
• HERCULES (0. Lat. Hercoles, Hercles)

Hercules, the solar See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero Gilgamesh (see GILGAMESH, See also:

• ERIC

Eric or) . They were recorded in the comparatively See also:

• LATE

late surviving version of the 7th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century Inc., on twelve tablets, with an obvious See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design of correlation with the twelve divisions of the sun's See also:

• ANNUAL

annual course . Gilgamesh's See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of the divine bull was placed under Taurus; his slaying of the See also:

• TYRANT (Gr. r6pavvos, master, ruler)

tyrant Khumbaba (the prototype of See also:

• GERYON (GERYONES, GERYONEUS)

Geryon) in the fifth month typified the victory of See also:

• LIGHT

light over darkness, represented in plastic See also:

• ART

art by the See also:

• GROUP

group of a lion killing a bull, which is the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form ordinarily given to the sign Leo on Ninevite cylinders .

10 The wooing of Ishtar by the hero of the epic falls under Virgo, and his encounter with two scorpion men, guardians of the rising and the setting sun, under Scorpio . The eleventh tablet narrates the deluge; the twelfth associates the apotheosis of See also:

• EABANI

Eabani with the zodiacal emblems of the resurrection . In the formation of the constellations of the zodiac little regard was paid to stellar configurations . The Chaldaeans See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose three stars in each sign to be the " councillor gods" of the planets." These were called by the Greeks " decans," because ten degrees of the ecliptic and ten days of the year were presided over by each . The See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college of the decans was conceived as moving, by their annual risings and settings, in an " eternal See also:

• CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

circuit " between the infernal and supernal regions . Modern asterisms first appear in the Phaenomena of Eudoxus about 370 B.C . But Eudoxus, there is reason to believe, consulted, not the heavens, but a See also:

• CELESTIAL, OR STELLAR

celestial globe of an anterior See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch, on which the stars and the signs were forced into unnatural agreement . The representation thus handed down (in the verses of See also:

• ARATUS

Aratus) has been thought to See also:

• TALLY

tally best with the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of the sky about 2000 B.c.;12 and the mention of a See also:

• POLE (FAMILY)
• POLE, REGINALD (1500-1558)
• POLE, RICHARD DE LA (d. 1525)
• POLE, WILLIAM (1814—1900)

pole-star, for which Eudoxus was rebuked by Hipparchus, seems, as W . T . See also:

• LYNN

Lynn pointed out," to refer to the time when a Draconis 6 Lenormant, Origines, i . 267 . 6 See also:

• HUMBOLDT, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH ALEXANDER, BARON
• HUMBOLDT, KARL WILHELM VON (1767-1835)

Humboldt, Vues See also:

• DES

des Cordillbres (181o), p .

157 . 7 Rev . Archeol . (1879), p . 344 . 9 Trans . Soc . Bibl . Archaeol., 166 . 9 The god Ea or Hea, the See also:

• OANNES

Oannes of See also:

• BEROSSUS

Berossus, See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to the fish-god See also:

• DAGON

Dagon, came to the See also:

• RESCUE (in Middle Eng. rescous, from O. Fr. recousse, Low Lat. rescussa, from reexcussa,reexcutere, to shake off again, re, again, ex, off, quatere, to shake)

rescue of the protagonist in the Chaldaean See also:

• DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. Snail, act or do)

drama of the deluge . to Lenormant, Origines, i . 240 .

" Diod . Sic., Hist., ii . 30, where, however, by an obvious See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

mistake the number of " councillor gods " is stated at only thirty . 12 R . See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

Brown, Babylonian See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

Record, No . 3, p . 34 . 16 Babylonian Record, No . 5, p . 79 . stood near the pole . The data afforded by Eudoxus, however, are far too vague to serve as the basis of any See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological conclusion .

See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian Zodiacal Signs.—The Egyptians adopted from the Greeks, with considerable modifications of its attendant symbolism, the twelve-See also:

• FOLD

fold division of the zodiac . Aries became the Fleece; two Sprouting See also:

• PLANTS

Plants, typifying equality or resemblance, stood for Gemini; Cancer was re-named Scarabaeus; Leo was converted, from the See also:

• AXE (0. Eng. aex; a word common, in different forms, in the Teutonic languages, and akin to the Greek 41v17; the New English Dictionary prefers the spelling " ax ")

axe-like configuration of its chief stars, into the See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

Knife: Libra into the See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

Mountain of the Sun, a See also:

• REMINISCENCE (from Lat. reminisci, to remember)

reminiscence, apparently, of the Euphratean association of the seventh month with a " See also:

• HOLY

holy See also:

• MOUND

mound," designating the biblical See also:

• TOWER (Lat. turris; Fr. tour, clocker; Ital. torre; Ger. Thurm)

tower of See also:

• BABEL

Babel . A Srerpent was the Egyptian equivalent of Scorpio; the Arrow only of Sagittarius was retained; Capricornus became " Life," or a See also:

• MIRROR (through O. Fr. mirour, mod. miroir, from a sup-posed Late Lat. miratorium, from mirari, to admire)

Mirror as an See also:

• IMAGE (Lat. imago, perhaps from the same root as imitari, copy, imitate)

image of life; Aquarius survived as Water; Taurus, Virgo and Pisces remained unchanged.' The motive of some of the substitutions was to avoid the confusion which must have ensued from the duplication of previously existing native asterisms; thus, the Egyptian and Greek Lions were composed of totally different stars . Abstractions in other cases replaced See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete See also:

• OBJECTS

objects, with the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general result of effacing the distinctive See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the Greek zodiac as a " circle of living things." Spread of Greek System.—Early Zoroastrian writings, though impregnated with star-See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship, show no traces of an See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to organize the heavenly See also:

• ARRAY (from the O. Fr. areyer, Med. Lat. arredare, to get ready)

array . In the Bundahish, however (9th century), the twelve " Akhtars," designated by the same names as our signs, See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead the See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army of See also:

• ORMAZD, or ORMUZD (O. Persian Auramazda or Ahuramazda)

Ormazd, while the seven " Awakhtars " or planets (including a See also:

• METEOR (Gr. µerEwpa, literally " things in the air,” from µera, beyond, and aeip6Lv, to lift up)

meteor and a See also:

• COMET (Gr. Koµieiis, long-haired)

comet) fight for See also:

• AHRIMAN (Gr. 'Apecµavios in Aristotle, or 'Apeiµav+7s in Agathias; in the Avesta, Angr3 Mainyush)—" the Destructive Spirit ")

Ahriman . The knowledge of the solar zodiac thus turned to See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account for dualistic purposes was undoubtedly de-rived from the Greeks . By them, too, it was introduced into Hindustan . Aryabhata, about the beginning of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian era, reckoned by the same signs as Hipparchus . They were transmitted from See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India by Buddhist missionaries to See also:

• CHINA

China, but remained in See also:

• ABEYANCE (O. Fr. abeance, " gaping")

abeyance until the Jesuit reform of Chinese astronomy in the 17th century . Chinese Zodiacal Signs.—The native Chinese zodiacal system was of unexampled complexity . Besides divisions into twenty-eight and twenty-four parts, it included two distinct duodenary series . The tse or " stations " were referred by E .

C . See also:

• BIOT, JEAN BAPTISTE (1774-1862)

Biot to the date 1111 B.C . Measured from the winter solstice of that epoch, they corresponded, in conformity with the Chinese method of observation by intervals of what we now See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call right See also:

• ASCENSION
• ASCENSION, FEAST OF THE

ascension, to equal portions of the celestial equator ? Projected upon the ecliptic, these were considerably unequal, and the tse accordingly differed essentially from the Chaldaean and Greek signs . Their use was chiefly astrological, and their highly figurative names—" Great Splendour," " Immense Void," " Fire of the See also:

• PHOENIX
• PHOENIX (Gr. 4oivt )

Phoenix," &c.—had reference to no particular stars . They became virtually merged in the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European series, stamped with official recognition over two centuries ago . The twenty-four tsieki• or demi-tse were probably invented to mark the course of See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather changes throughout the year . Their appellations are purely meteorological . The characteristic Chinese mode of dividing the "yellow road " of the sun was, however, by the twelve "cyclical animals " —See also:

• RAT (a word common to Teut. and Rom. languages; probably first adopted in Teut.; the ultimate origin is not known; Skeat suggests the root rad-, to scratch; cf. Ger. Ratte, Dan. rotte, Fr. rat, &c.)

Rat, Ox, See also:

• TIGER
• TIGER (Felis tigris)

Tiger, See also:

• HARE
• HARE, SIR JOHN (1844– )

Hare, See also:

• DRAGON (Fr. dragon, through Lat. draco, from the Greek; connected with SEpeoµay " see," and interpreted as " sharp-sighted "; O.H. Ger. tracho, dracho, M.H.G. trache, Mod. Ger. Drachen; A.S. draca, hence the equivalent English form " drake," " fire-drake,

Dragon or See also:

• CROCODILE

Crocodile, See also:

• SERPENT (Lat. serpens, creeping, from serpere; cf. "reptile " from repere, Gr.4 ml-eta)

Serpent, See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

Horse, See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

Sheep, See also:

• MONKEY

Monkey, See also:

• HEN

Hen, See also:

• DOG

Dog, See also:

• PIG
• PIG (a word of obscure origin, connected with the Low Ger. and Dut. word of the same meaning, bigge)

Pig . The opening sign corresponds to our Aquarius, and it is remarkable that the rat is, in the far See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East, frequently used as an See also:

• IDEOGRAPH (Gr. i&Ea, idea, and 'yparked', to write)

ideograph for "water." But here the agreement ceases . For the Chinese series has the See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange peculiarity of proceeding in a See also:

• RETROGRADE (from the Lat. retro, backwards, gradiri, to go)

retrograde direction or against the course of the sun . Thus, the second sign (of the Ox) occupies the position of Capricorn, the third that of Sagittarius, and so on .

The explanation of this seeming See also:

• ANOMALY (from Gr. lwvw)

anomaly is to be found in the primitive destination of the " animals " to the purposes of an " horary zodiac." Their succession, established to mark the hours of day and night, was not unnaturally ' See also:

• BRUGSCH, HEINRICH KARL (1827-1894)

Brugsch, Z . D . M . G., ix . 513 . 2 Biot, Journ. des Savans, 1839, p . 729, and 184o, p . 151 ; Gaubil, Hist. de l'Astr . Chinoise, p . 9.associated with the diurnal revolution of the sphere from east to See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west ? They are unquestionably of native origin . Tradition ascribes their invention to Tajao, See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister of the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor Hwang-ti, who reigned c .

2697 B.C., and it can scarcely be placed later than the 7th century B.C.4 The Chinese circle of the " animals " obtained early a wide See also:

• DIFFUSION (from the Lat. diffundere; dis-, asunder, and fundere, to pour out)

diffusion . It was adopted by See also:

• TATARS (the common form Tartars is less correct)

Tatars, See also:

• TURKS

Turks and See also:

• MONGOLS

Mongols, in See also:

• TIBET, or THIBET

Tibet and Tong-See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king, See also:

• JAPAN

Japan and See also:

• KOREA
• KOREA, or COREA (CH'AO HSIEN, DAI HAN)

Korea . It is denominated by Humboldt' the "zodiac of hunters and. shepherds," and he adds that the presence in it of a tiger gives it an exclusively See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic character . It appears never to have been designed for astronomical employment . From the first it served to characterize the divisions of time . The nomenclature not only of the hours of the day and of their minutest intervals was supplied by it, but of the months of the year, of the years in the Oriental sixty-year cycle, and of the days in the " little cycle " of twelve days . Nor has it yet fallen into desuetude . Years " of the Rat," "of the Tiger," " of the Pig," still figure in the almanacs of Central See also:

• ASIA

Asia, See also:

• COCHIN
• COCHIN, DENYS MARIE PIERRE AUGUSTIN (1851L'Evolution de la vie (1895); Le Monde exterieur (1845); Contre les barbares (1899)

Cochin China and Japan . Aztec Zodiacal Signs.—A large detachment of the " cyclical animals " even found its way to the New See also:

• WORLD

World . Seven of the twenty days constituting the Aztec month See also:

• BORE

bore names evidently borrowed from those of the Chinese horary signs . The Hare (or See also:

• RABBIT

Rabbit), Monkey, Dog and Serpent reappeared without See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change; for the Tiger, Crocodile and Hen, unknown in See also:

• AMERICA

America, the See also:

• OCELOT
• OCELOT (Mexican Flalocelotl, literally field-jaguar, from Flalli, field, and ocelotl, tiger, jaguar)

Ocelot, See also:

• LIZARD (Lat. lacertal)

Lizard and See also:

• EAGLE (Fr. aigle, from the Lat. aquila)

Eagle were substituted as analogous.' The Aztec calendar dated from the 7th century; but the zodiacal tradition embodied by it was doubtless much more ancient . Of the zodiac in its true sense of a partitioned See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt of the sphere there was no aboriginal knowledge on the See also:

• AMERICAN

American See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent .

Mexican acquaintance with the signs related only to their secondary See also:

• FUNCTION

function as See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

dies (so to speak) with which to See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

stamp recurring intervals of time . Lunar Zodiac.—The synodical revolution of ,the moon laid down the lines of the solar, its sidereal revolution those of the lunar zodiac . The first was a circlet of " full moons "; the second marked the diurnal stages of the lunar progress See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the sky, from and back again to any selected star . The moon was the earliest " measurer " both of time and space; but its services can scarcely have been rendered available until stellar " milestones " were established at suitable points along its path . Such were the See also:

• HINDU

Hindu nakshatras, a word originally signifying stars in general, but appropriated to designate certain small stellar See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups marking the divisions of the lunar track . They exhibit in an exaggerated form the irregularities of See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution visible in our zodiacal constellations, and See also:

• PRESENT

present the further anomaly of being frequently reckoned as twenty-eight in number, while the ecliptical arcs they characterize are in-variably twenty-seven . Now, since the moon revolves round the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth in 271 days, hesitation between the two full See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers might easily arise; yet the real explanation of the difficulty appears to be different . The superfluous asterism, named Abhijit, included the See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright star a Lyrae, under whose influence the gods had vanquished the Asuras . Its invocation with the other nakshatras, remoteness from the ecliptic notwithstanding, was thus due (according to Max Miiller.'s plausible conjecture)? to its being regarded as of especially See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• OMEN (a Latin word, either connected with os, mouth, or more probably with auris (Gr. ois, ear; apparently, meaning " a thing heard " or " spoken ")

omen . Acquaintance with See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign systems of twenty-eight lunar divisions tended doubtless to See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix its position, which remained, nevertheless, always equivocal.' Alternately admitted into or rejected from the series, it was finally, some six or seven centuries ago, eliminated by the effects of precession in See also:

• REVERSING

reversing the See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of culmination of its limiting stars . The notion of a twenty-seven-fold division of the zodiac was deeply rooted in Hindu tradition . The number and the name were in early times almost synonymous .

Thus a nakshatra-mdld ' Humboldt, Vues des Cordilleres, p . 168 . 8 G . Schlegel, Ur . See also:

• CHIN

Chin., pp . 37, 561 . 5 Op. cit., p . 219 . 6 Ibid., p . 152; See also:

• PRESC