See also:

• ZOOLOGY (from Gr. Nov, a living thing, and ?byos, theory)

ZOOLOGY (from Gr. Nov, a living thing, and ?byos, theory)  , that portion of See also:

• BIOLOGY (Gr. Qios, life)

biology (q.v.) which relates to animals, as distinguished from that portion (See also:

• BOTANY (from Gr. l3or6v17, plant; ,66vicety, to graze)

Botany) which is concerned with See also:

• PLANTS

plants . See also:

• HISTORY

HISTORY There is something almost pathetic in the childish wonder and delight with which mankind in its earlier phases of See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization gathered up and treasured stories of See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange animals from distant lands or deep seas, such as are recorded in the See also:

• PHYSIOLOGUS

Physiologus, in Albertus See also:

• MAGNUS, HEINRICH GUSTAV (1802-1870)

Magnus, and even at the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day in the popular See also:

• TREATISES

treatises of See also:

• JAPAN

Japan and See also:

• CHINA

China . That omnivorous universally credulous See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage, which may be calledthe " legendary," was succeeded by the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of collectors and travellers, when many of the strange stories believed in were actually demonstrated as true by the living or pre- See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change served trophies brought to See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . The possibility of in the verification established verification as a See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit; and See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character the See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting of things, instead of the accumulating See also:

• ING

ing of reports, See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed a new See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty of See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute observation . The See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early collectors of natural curiosities were the founders of zoological See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, and to this day the naturalist-traveller and his correlative, the museum See also:

• CURATOR (Lat. for " one who takes care," curare, to take care of)

curator and systematist, See also:

• PLAY

play a most important See also:

• PART

part in the progress of See also:

• ZOOLOGY (from Gr. Nov, a living thing, and ?byos, theory)

zoology . Indeed, the See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical and present importance of this aspect or See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of zoological science is so See also:

• GREAT

great that the name " zoo-logy " has until recently been associated entirely with it, to the exclusion of the study of minute anatomical structure and See also:

• FUNCTION

function which have been distinguished as See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

anatomy and See also:

• PHYSIOLOGY (from Gr. 4 i s, nature, and koyos, discourse)

physiology . Anatomy and the study of See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal mechanism, animal physics and animal See also:

• CHEMISTRY
• CHEMISTRY (formerly "chymistry"; Gr. xvµela; for derivation see ALCHEMY)

chemistry, all of which See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form part of a true zoology, were excluded from the usual See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of the word by the See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident that the zoologist had his museum but not his See also:

• GARDEN (from O. Fr. garden, mod. Fr. jardin; this, like our words " garth," a paddock attached to a building, and " yard," comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as gards and O. H. Ger. gart, cf. Dutch gaarde and Ger. .garten)

garden of living specimens as the botanist had;' and, whilst the zoologist was thus deprived of the means of anatomical and physiological study—only later supplied by the method of preserving animal bodies in See also:

• ALCOHOL

alcohol—the demands of See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine for a knowledge of the structure of the human animal brought into existence a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate and See also:

• SPECIAL

special study of human anatomy and physiology . From these special studies of human structure the knowledge of the anatomy of animals has proceeded, the same investigator who had made himself acquainted with the structure of the human See also:

• BODY

body desiring to compare with the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard given by human anatomy the structures of other animals . Thus See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative anatomy came into existence as a branch of inquiry apart from zoology, and it was only in the latter 'part of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century that the See also:

• LIMITATION, STATUTES OF

limitation of the word " zoology " to a know-ledge of animals which expressly excludes the See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of their See also:

• INTERNAL

internal structure was rejected by the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• CON

con-sent of those concerned in the progress of science . It is now generally recognized that it is mere tautology to speak of zoology and comparative anatomy, and that museum naturalists must give See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention as well to the inside as to the outside of animals . Scientific zoology really started in the 16th century with the awakening of the new spirit of observation and exploration, but for a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time ran a separate course uninfluenced by the progress of the medical studies of anatomy and physiology . The active See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search for knowledge by means of observation and experiment found its natural See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home in the See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities .

Owing to the connexion of medicine with these seats of learning, it was natural that the study of the structure and functions of the human body and of the animals nearest to See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man should take See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root there; the spirit of inquiry which now for the first time became general showed itself in the anatomical See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian universities of the 16th century, and spread fifty years later to See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford . In the 17th century the lovers of the new See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy, the investigators of nature by means of observation and experiment, banded themselves into See also:

• ACADEMIES

academies or See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies for mutual support and intercourse . The first founded of surviving See also:

• EUROPEAN

European academies, the Academia Naturae Curiosorum (1651),2 especially confined itself to the description and See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration of the structure of plants and animals; eleven years later (1662) the Royal Society of See also:

• LONDON

London was incorporated by royal See also:

• CHARTER (Lat. charta, carta, from Gr. Xap-rns, originally for papyrus, material for writing, thence transferred to paper and from this material to the document, in O. Eng. boc, book)

charter, having existed without a name or fixed organization for 1 The See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval attitude towards both plants and animals had no relation to real knowledge, but was part of a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar and in itself highly interesting See also:

• MYSTICISM (from Or. µuety, to shut the eyes; µuorrts, one initiated into the mysteries)

mysticism . A fantastic and elaborate See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of symbolism existed which comprised all nature; See also:

• WITCHCRAFT

witchcraft, See also:

• ALCHEMY

alchemy and medicine were its See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical expressions . Animals as well as plants were regarded as " simples " and used in medicine, and a knowledge of them was valued from this point of view . 2 The Academia Secretorum Naturae was founded at See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples in 156o, but was suppressed by the ecclesiastical authorities . seventeen years previously (from 1645) . A little later the See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy of Sciences of See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris was established by See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis XIV . The See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of these great academies of the 17th century on the progress of zoology was precisely to effect that bringing together of the museum-men and the physicians or anatomists which was needed for further development . Whilst the See also:

• RACE

race of collectors and systematizers culminated in the latter part of the 18th century in See also:

• LINNAEUS

Linnaeus, a new type of student made its See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance in such men as See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• HUNTER, JOHN (1728-1793)
• HUNTER, ROBERT MERCER TALIAFERRO (r8o9-1887)
• HUNTER, SIR WILLIAM WILSON (1840-19oo)
• HUNTER, WILLIAM (1718–1783)
• HUNTER, WILLIAM ALEXANDER (1844-1898)

Hunter and other anatomists, who, not satisfied with the superficial observations of the popular " zoologists," set themselves to See also:

• WORK

work to examine anatomically the whole animal See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom, and to classify its members by aid of the results of such profound study . Under the influence of the touchstone of strict inquiry set on See also:

• FOOT

foot by the Royal Society, the marvels of witchcraft, sympathetic powders and other See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of medieval superstition disappeared like a mist before the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun, whilst accurate observations and demonstrations of a See also:

• HOST

host of new wonders accumulated, amongst which were numerous contributions to the anatomy of animals, and none perhaps more noteworthy than the observations, made by the aid of microscopes constructed by himself, of See also:

• LEEUWENHOEK, or LEUWENHOEK, ANTHONY VAN (1632–1723)

Leeuwenhoek, the Dutch naturalist (1683), some of whose See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments were presented by him to the society . It was not until the 19th century that the See also:

• MICROSCOPE (Gr. µucp6s, small, asenreiv, to %view)

microscope, thus early applied by Leeuwenhoek, See also:

• MALPIGHI, MARCELLO (1628-1694)

Malpighi, See also:

• HOOK, JAMES CLARKE (1819-1907)
• HOOK, THEODORE EDWARD (1788-1841)
• HOOK, WALTER FARQUHAR (1798-1875)

Hook and See also:

• SWAMMERDAM, JAN (1637-168o)

Swammerdam to the study of animal structure, was perfected as an See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument, and accomplished for zoology its final and most important service .

The perfecting of the microscope led to a full comprehension of the great doctrine of See also:

• CELL (from Lat. cella, probably from an Indo-European kal —seen in Lat. celare, to hide; another suggestion connects the word with Lat. cera, wax, taking the original meaning to refer to the honeycomb)

cell-structure and the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of the facts—(r) that all organisms are either single corpuscles (so-called cells) of living material (microscopic animalcules, &c.) or are built up of an immense number of such See also:

• UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF
• UNITS, PHYSICAL

units; (2) that all organisms begin their individual existence as a single unit or corpuscle of living substance, which multiplies by binary fission, the products growing in See also:

• SIZE

size and multiplying similarly by binary fission; and (3) that the See also:

• LIFE

life of a multi-cellular organism is the sum of the activities of the corpuscular units of which it consists, and that the processes of life must be studied in and their explanation obtained from an under-See also:

• STANDING

standing of the chemical and See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical changes which go on in each individual corpuscle or unit of living material or See also:

• PROTOPLASM

protoplasm . Meanwhile the astronomical theories of development of the See also:

• SOLAR, SOLLER (Lat. solarium, Fr.• galetas, Ital. solaio)

solar See also:

• SYSTEM

system from a gaseous See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition to its present form, put forward by See also:

• KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804)

Kant and by See also:

• LAPLACE, PIERRE SIMON, MARQUIS DE (1749—1827)

Laplace, had impressed men's minds ideas of with the conception of a general See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of spondevelop- taneous progress or development in all nature . The `neat. science of See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

geology came into existence, and the whole See also:

• PANORAMA (Gr. -rap, all, and opa,ua, view)

panorama of successive stages of the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth's history, each with its distinct See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of strange animals and plants, unlike those of the present day and simpler in proportion as they recede into the past, was revealed by See also:

• CUVIER, GEORGES LEOPOLD CHRETIEN FREDERIC DAGOBERT, BARON (1769-1832)

Cuvier, See also:

• AGASSIZ, ALEXANDER EMANUEL (1835-191o)
• AGASSIZ, JEAN LOUIS RODOLPHE (1807-1893)

Agassiz and others . The history of the crust of the earth was explained by See also:

• LYELL, SIR CHARLES (1797-1875)

Lyell as due to a See also:

• PROCESS

process of slow development, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to effect which he called in no cataclysmic agencies, no mysterious forces differing from those operating at the present day . Thus he carried on the narrative of orderly development from the point at which it was See also:

• LEFT

left by Kant and Laplace—explaining by reference to the ascertained See also:

• LAWS

laws of physics and chemistry the configuration of the earth, its mountains and seas, its igneous and its stratified rocks, just as the astronomers had explained by those same laws the See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of the sun and See also:

• PLANETS, MINOR

planets from diffused gaseous See also:

• MATTER

matter of high temperature . The See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion that living things must also be included in this great development was obvious . The delay in the establishment of the doctrine of organic evolution was due, not to the ignorant and unobservant, but to the leaders of zoological and botanical science . Knowing the almost endless complexity of organic structures, realizing that man himself with all the See also:

• MYSTERY (Gr. µw(Trilpcov, from tcuvrm, an initiate, µfew, to shut the mouth)

mystery of his life and consciousness must be included in any explanation of the origin of living things, they preferred to regard living things as something apart fromthe See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of nature, specially cared for, specially created by a Divine Being . Thus it was that the so-called " Natur-philosophen " of the last See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade of the 18th century, and The their successors in the first See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the 19th, Nalurfound few adherents among the working zoologists tiro-and botanists . See also:

• LAMARCK,

Lamarck, Treviranus, See also:

• ERASMUS, DESIDERIUS (1466–1536)

Erasmus See also:

• DAR

Dar- peen. win, See also:

• GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON (1749-1832)

Goethe, and See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

Saint-Hilaire preached to See also:

• DEAF

deaf ears, for they advanced the theory that living beings had developed by a slow process of transmutation in successive generations from simpler ancestors, and in the beginning from simplest formless matter, without being able to demonstrate any existing See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical causes by which such development must necessarily be brought about . They were met by the See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism that possibly such a development had taken See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place; but, as no one could show as a See also:

• SIMPLE

simple fact of observation that it had taken place, nor as a result of legitimate inference that it must have taken place, it was quite as likely that the past and present See also:

• SPECIES

species of animals and plants had been separately created or individually brought into existence by unknown and inscrutable causes, and (it was held) the truly scientific man would refuse to occupy himself with such fancies, whilst ever continuing to concern himself with the observation and See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of indisputable facts . The critics did well; for the " Natur-philosophen," though right in their See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main conception, were premature .

It was reserved for See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles See also:

• DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882)
• DARWIN, ERASMUS (1731-1802)

Darwin, in the See also:

• YEAR

year 1859, to place the whole theory of organic evolution on a new footing, and by his See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of a mechanical cause actually Darwin's existing and demonstrable by which organic evolution smarms must be brought about, entirely to change the attitude of organic in regard to it of even the most rigid exponents of See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

lion . the scientific method . Darwin succeeded in estab- lishing the doctrine of organic evolution by the introduction into the See also:

• WEB (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Du. webbe, Dan. vaev, Ger. Gewebe, all from the Teutonic wabh—to weave)

web of the zoological and botanical sciences of a new science . The subject-matter of this new science, or branch of biological science, had been neglected: it did not form part of the studies of the See also:

• COLLECTOR

collector and systematist, nor was it a branch of anatomy, nor of the physiology pursued by medical men, nor again was it included in the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of microscopy and the cell-theory . The See also:

• AREA

area of biological knowledge which Darwin was the first to subject to scientific method and to render, as it were, contributory to the great stream formed by the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of the various branches, is that which relates to the breeding of animals and plants, their congenital See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations, and the transmission and perpetuation of those variations . This branch of biological science may be called thremmatology (Op q a, " a thing bred ") . Outside the scientific See also:

• WORLD

world an immense See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of observation and experiment had grown up in relation to this subject . From the earliest times the shepherd, the See also:

• FARMER, RICHARD (1735–1787)

farmer, the horticulturist, and the " fancier " had for practical purposes made themselves acquainted with a number of biological laws, and successfully applied them without exciting more than an occasional See also:

• NOTICE

notice from the See also:

• ACADEMIC

academic students of biology . It is one of Darwin's great merits to have made use of these observations and to have formulated their results to a large extent as the laws of variation and See also:

• HEREDITY

heredity . As the breeder selects a congenital variation which suits his requirements, and by breeding from the animals (or plants) exhibiting that variation obtains a new breed specially characterized by that variation, so in nature is there a selection amongst all the congenital variations of each See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation of a species . This selection depends on the fact that more See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young are See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born than the natural See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision of See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food will support . In consequence of this excess of births there is a struggle for existence and a survival of the fittest, and consequently an ever-present necessarily acting selection, which either maintains accurately the form of the species from generation to generation or leads to its modification in See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence with changes in the surrounding circumstances which have relation to its fitness for success in the struggle for life Darwin's introduction of thremmatology into the domain of scientific biology was accompanied by a new and special development of a branch of study which had previously been See also:

• ILL

ill-own as See also:

• TELEOLOGY (Gr. Taos, end)

teleology, the study of the See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation of organi structures to the service of the organisms in which they occur .

It cannot be said that previously to Darwin there had been New dc- any very profound study of teleology, but it had vetopment been the delight of a certain type of mind—that of of teteo- the lovers of nature or naturalists See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par excellence, as logy, they were sometimes termed—to See also:

• WATCH (in O. Eng. wcecce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake)

watch the habits of living animals and plants, and to point out the remarkable ways in which the structure of each variety of organic life was adapted to the special circumstances of life of the variety or species . The astonishing See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours and See also:

• GROTESQUE

grotesque forms of some animals and plants which the museum zoologists gravely de-scribed without comment were shown by these observers of living nature to have their significance in the See also:

• ECONOMY

economy of the organism possessing them; and a general doctrine was re-cognized, to the effect that no part. or structure of an organism is without definite use and adaptation, being designed by the Creator for the benefit of the creature to which it belongs, or else for the benefit, amusement or instruction of his highest creature—man . Teleology in this form of the doctrine of See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design was never very deeply rooted amongst scientific anatomists and systematists . It was considered permissible to speculate somewhat vaguely on the subject of the utility of this or that startling variety of structure; but few attempts, though some of great importance, were made systematically to explain by observation and experiment the adaptation of organic structures to particular purposes in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of the See also:

• LOWER

lower animals and plants . Teleology had, indeed, an important part in the development of physiology—the knowledge of the mechanism, the physical and chemical properties, of the parts of the body of man and the higher animals allied to hint . But, as applied to lower and more obscure forms of life, teleology presented almost insurmountable difficulties; and consequently, in place of exact experiment and demonstration, the most reckless though ingenious assumptions were made as to the utility of the parts and See also:

• ORGANS

organs of lower animals . Darwin's theory had as one of its results the See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

reformation and rehabilitation of teleology . According to that theory, every See also:

• ORGAN

organ, every part, See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour and peculiarity of an organism, must either be of benefit to that organism itself or have been so to its ancestors:1 no peculiarity of structure or general conformation, no habit or See also:

• INSTINCT

instinct in any organism, can be supposed to exist for the benefit or amusement of another organism, not even for the delectation of man him-self . Necessarily, according to the theory of natural selection, structures either are present because they are selected as useful or because they are still inherited from ancestors to whom they were useful, though no longer useful to the existing representatives of those ancestors . Structures previously inexplicable were now explained as survivals from a past age, no longer useful though once of value . Every variety of form and colour was urgently and absolutely called upon to produce its See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title to existence either as an active useful See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent or as a survival . Darwin himself spent a large part of the later years of his life in thus extending the new teleology .

The old doctrine of types, which was used by the philosophically minded zoologists (and botanists) of the first See also:

• HALF

half 1 A very subtle and important qualification of this generalization has to be recognized (and was recognized by Darwin) in the fact that owing to the interdependence of the parts of the bodies of living things and their profound chemical interactions and peculiar structural See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance (what is called organic See also:

• POLARITY (Lat. polaris, poles, pole)

polarity) the variation of one single part (a spot of colour, a tooth, a claw, a leaflet) may, and demonstrably does in many cases See also:

• ENTAIL (from Fr. tailler, to cut; the old derivation from tales haeredes is now abandoned)

entail variation of other parts—what are called correlated variations . Hence many structures which are obvious to the See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye, and serve as distinguishing marks of separate species, are really not themselves of value or use, but are the necessary concomitants of less obvious and even altogether obscure qualities, which are the real characters upon which selection is acting . Such " correlated variations " may attain to great size and complexity without being of use . But eventually they may in turn become, in changed conditions, of selective value . Thus in many cases the difficulty of supposing that selection has acted on minute and imperceptible initial variations, so small as to have no selective value, may be got rid of . A useless " correlated variation " may have attained great See also:

• VOLUME

volume and quality before it is (as it were) seized upon and perfected by natural selection . All organisms are essentially and necessarily built up by such correlated variations.of the 19th century as a ready means of explaining the failures and difficulties of the doctrine of design, See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell into its proper place under the new See also:

• DISPENSATION

dispensation . The adherence to type, the favourite conception of the transcendental morphologist, was seen to be nothing more than the expression of one of the laws of thremmatology, the persistence of hereditary trans-See also:

• MISSION

mission of ancestral characters, even when they have ceased to be significant or valuable in the struggle for existence, whilst the so-called evidences of design which was supposed to modify the limitations of types assigned to Himself by the Creator were seen to be adaptations due to the selection and intensification by selective breeding of fortuitous congenital variations, which happened to prove more useful than the many thousand other variations which did not survive in the struggle for existence . Thus not only did Darwin's theory give a new basis to the study of organic structure, but, whilst rendering the general theory of organic evolution equally acceptable and Effects or necessary, it explained the existence of See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low and simple Darwin's forms of life as survivals of the earliest ancestry of theory more highly complex forms, and revealed the classi- "p0° fications of the systematist as unconscious attempts zoology. to construct the genealogical See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree or See also:

• PEDIGREE

pedigree of plants and animals . Finally, it brought the simplest living matter or formless protoplasm before the See also:

• MENTAL

mental See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision as the starting-point whence, by the operation of necessary mechanical causes, the highest forms have been evolved, and it rendered unavoidable the conclusion that this earliest living material was itself evolved by See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual processes, the result also of the known and recognized laws of physics and chemistry, from material which we should See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call not living . It abolished the conception of life as an entity above and beyond the See also:

• COMMON

common properties of matter, and led to the conviction that the marvellous and exceptional qualities of that which we call " living " matter are nothing more nor less than an exceptionally complicated development of those chemical and physical properties which we recognize in a gradually ascending See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale of evolution in the See also:

• CARBON (symbol C, atomic weight 12)

carbon compounds, containing See also:

• NITROGEN [symbol N., atomic weight 14.01, 0=16]

nitrogen as well as See also:

• OXYGEN (symbol 0, atomic weight 16)

oxygen, See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur and See also:

• HYDROGEN [symbol H, atomic weight x-oo8 (0=16)]

hydrogen as constituent atoms of their enormous molecules . Thus mysticism was finally banished from the domain of biology, and zoology became one of the physical sciences—the science which seeks to arrange and discuss the phenomena of animal life and form, as the outcome of the operation of the laws of physics and chemistry .

A subdivision of zoology which was at one time in favour is simply into See also:

• MORPHOLOGY, (Gr. yopdsil, form)

morphology and physiology, the study of form and structure on the one See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, and the study of See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope the activities and functions of the forms and structures or zoo- on the other . But a logical See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division like this is not 10g Y. necessarily conducive to the ascertainment and remembrance of the historical progress and present significance of the science . No such distinction of mental activities as that involved in the division of the study of animal life into morphology and physiology has ever really existed: the investigator of animal forms has never entirely ignored the functions of the forms studied by him, and the experimental inquirer into the functions and properties of animal tissues and organs has always taken very careful See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the forms of those tissues and organs . A more instructive subdivision must be one which corresponds to the separate currents of thought and mental preoccupation which have been historically manifested in western Europe in the gradual evolution of what is to-day the great See also:

• RIVER

river of zoological doctrine to which they have all been rendered contributory . It must recognize the following five branches of zoological study: 1 . Morphography.—The work of the collector and systematist: exemplified by Linnaeus and his predecessors, by Cuvier, Agassiz, See also:

• HAECKEL, ERNST HEINRICH (1834- )

Haeckel . 2 . Bionomics.—The See also:

• LORE
• LORE, AMBROISE DE (1396-1446)

lore of the farmer, gardener, sportsman, fancier and field-naturalist, including thremmatology, or the science of breeding, and the allied teleology, or science of organic adaptations: exemplified by the See also:

• PATRIARCH (M.E. and O. Fr. patriarche, Lat. patriarcha, Gr. aarpuipxtis, from srarptu., clan, and apxil, rule)

patriarch See also:

• JACOB
• JACOB, JOHN (1812-1858)

Jacob, the poet See also:

• VIRGIL (PUBLIUS VERGILIUS MARC)
• VIRGIL, POLYDORE (c. 1470-1555)

Virgil, See also:

• SPRENGEL, KURT (1766-1833)

Sprengel, See also:

• KIRBY, WILLIAM (1759–1850)

Kirby and See also:

• SPENCE, THOMAS (1750-1814)

Spence, See also:

• WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL (1823— )
• WALLACE, LEWIS [LEW] (1827—1905)
• WALLACE, SIR RICHARD
• WALLACE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1270-1305)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM (1768-1843)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897)
• WALLACE, WILLIAM VINCENT (1814-1865)

Wallace See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti Darwin . Zoo-See also:

• DYNAMICS
• DYNAMICS (from Gr. bbvayts, strength)

Dynamics, Zoo-Physics, Zoo-Chemistry.—The pursuit of the learned physician,—anatomy and physiology: exemplified by See also:

• HARVEY
• HARVEY, GABRIEL (c. 1545-1630)
• HARVEY, SIR GEORGE (1806-1876)
• HARVEY, WILLIAM (1578—1657)

Harvey, See also:

• HALLER, ALBRECHT VON (1708–1777)
• HALLER, BERTHOLD (1492–1536)

Haller, Hunter, Johann See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller . Plasmology.—The study of the ultimate corpuscles of living matter, their structure, development and properties, by the aid of the microscope; exemplified by Malpighi, Hook, See also:

• SCHWANN, THEODOR (1810-1882)

Schwann, Kowalewsky . Philosophical Zoology.—General conceptions with regard to the relations of living things (especially animals) to the universe, to man, and to the Creator, their origin and significance: exemplified in the writings of the philosophers of classical antiquity, and of Linnaeus, Goethe, Lamarck, Cuvier, Lyell, H . See also:

• SPENCER
• SPENCER, HERBERT (1820-1903)
• SPENCER, JOHN CHARLES SPENCER, 3RD EARL (1782-1845)
• SPENCER, JOHNPOYNTZ SPENCER
• SPENCER, WILLIAM ROBERT (1769-1834)

Spencer and Darwin .

It is unnecessary to follow in this See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article all these subjects, since they are for the most part treated under separate headings, not indeed under these names—which are too comprehensive for that purpose—but under those of the more specific questions which arise under each . Thus Bionomics is treated in such articles as EVOLUTION, HEREDITY, VARIATION, See also:

• MENDELISM

MENDELISM, RE-See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

PRODUCTION, See also:

• SEX (Lat. sexes; possibly connected with secure, to cut)

SEX, &C.; Zoo-dynamics under MEDICINE, See also:

• SURGERY
• SURGERY (Fr. chirurgie, from Gr. Xetpoupyfa, i.e. hand-work)

SURGERY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY, See also:

• EMBRYOLOGY

EMBRYOLOGY, and allied articles; Plasmology under See also:

• CYTOLOGY (from huros, a hollow vessel, and X6yos, science)

CYTOLOGY, PROTOPLASM, &c.; and Philosophical Zoology under numerous headings, EvoLUTIoN, BIOLOGY, &e . See also ZOOLOGICAL See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

DISTRIBUTION, PALAEONTOLOGY, OCEANOGRAPHY, See also:

• MICROTOMY (Gr. -mµ17; r ivsu', to cut)

MICROTOMY, &C . It will be more appropriate here, without giving what would be a needless repetition of considerations, both historical and theoretical, which appear in other articles, to confine ourselves to two general questions, (I) the history of the various schemes of See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification, or Morphography, and (2) the consideration of the main tendencies is the study of zoology since Darwin .