THE EXODUS, THE 1920S, AND THE COMEBACK OF NEW ORLEANS JAZZ

From 1910 to 1930 there was a mass exodus of African Americans from the South to northern cities. Although racism was a part of day-to-day life in the Page 10  North, it was subtler than in the South, and there was more potential up North for blacks to have a decent life. The exodus affected New Orleans and the local music scene because many of the top jazz musicians chose to leave town. Some joined minstrel shows, went on the black vaudeville circuit, or became part of traveling shows; while others simply moved up North or West, without any clear job prospects, for the adventure of it all.

Bassist Bill Johnson was among the first to leave New Orleans, introducing jazz to California as early as 1909. Most of the top jazz musicians who departed ended up relocating to Chicago, including cornetists King Oliver, Freddie Keppard, and the young Louis Armstrong, trombonist Kid Ory (after a stay in Los Angeles), clarinetists Johnny Dodds and Jimmie Noone, and pianist Jelly Roll Morton.

For those who chose to stay in New Orleans, work remained plentiful throughout the 1920s. The unfortunate part was that recordings were fairly scarce, being dependent on occasional field trips from northern record labels, and none took place in New Orleans until 1924. Although some musicians, particularly cornetists Manuel Perez, Chris Kelly, and Buddy Petit, never did make a recording, others fared better.

While pre-1920 New Orleans jazz rarely featured any solos, with the lead passed between instruments and all of the musicians playing on nearly every chorus, by the mid-1920s the local music scene was affected by recordings from Chicago and New York. Groups such as Johnny De Droit’s New Orleans Jazz Orchestra, Oscar Celestin’s Original Tuxedo Orchestra, Johnny Bayersdorffer’s Jazzola Novelty Orchestra, the Halfway House Orchestra, the New Orleans Owls, and Sam Morgan’s Jazz Band alternated ensembles with occasional solos. Many of the local bands also utilized saxophones and were larger than the standard six or seven pieces that had been popular earlier.

During the 1920s and 1930s, rather than setting trends, most jazz in New Orleans followed the evolution of the music that took place in Chicago and New York. The onset of the Depression hit the music scene hard, and most clubs closed. While there were still parade bands, there was less to celebrate during this era, and musically New Orleans was in decline. Very few recordings were made in the city during the 1930s.

By the late 1930s a growing number of record collectors became interested in the roots of swing and wanted to hear more of the earlier styles of jazz. Some of the more enterprising fans ventured to New Orleans to check out the local scene and to search for the legendary musicians who had chosen to stay home rather than venture up North. Could they be lost links to the past who could give newer listeners an idea of what jazz sounded like before it was recorded, during the Buddy Bolden era?

The publication of the book Jazzmen resulted in a great deal of interest being invested in the legendary trumpeter Bunk Johnson. After a bit of a search, Johnson was discovered working outside of music. He claimed to have played with Bolden, saying that he was born in 1879; chances are he was really ten Page 11  years younger and may have been an early mentor to Louis Armstrong, who later denied being taught by Bunk. Johnson had been a major local player in New Orleans from around 1910 until the early 1930s before bad economic times forced him into retirement. After he was found alive, money was raised to buy Johnson a new set of teeth and a trumpet. He was privately recorded in 1942, played in San Francisco the following year, and was soon making records and appearing in New York. Some fans of New Orleans jazz who considered swing to be rather commercial, celebrated Bunk Johnson as a major figure and a new messiah; while others, hearing Johnson slip out of tune and miss notes, considered him a hack. The truth was somewhere in between. He was capable of playing with great beauty, but he sometimes sounded rusty and erratic, a condition not helped by his alcoholism. In 1945 Sidney Bechet, wanting to form an old-time New Orleans band, hired Johnson, but the trumpeter quickly drank himself out of the group. On and off from 1944 to 1946, Johnson used a band that included clarinetist George Lewis and trombonist Jim Robinson, but personality conflicts caused its breakup. In 1947 Johnson led his final band, utilizing fine swing-era musicians, and recorded one of his best albums. The following year he returned permanently to Louisiana and retired, passing away in 1949 as a controversial legend.

George Lewis, who recorded with Johnson and also as a leader in the mid-1940s, returned to New Orleans in 1946. Like Johnson, he had played extensively in New Orleans in his early days but had been out of action for a decade when he was discovered in 1942. Unlike Johnson, Lewis in time became a world traveler. He worked locally with his band until a 1950 article in Look magazine gave him nationwide exposure. By 1952 the clarinetist was playing up North, and many tours of Europe and Japan followed. Lewis, who was far from a virtuoso, had a distinctive sound on clarinet that was quite expressive and beautiful. He was very affected by his sidemen, however, so if his trumpeter, who during the 1950s was often the erratic Kid Howard, was having a bad day, Lewis tended to sound subpar too. There were some occasions when trombonist Jim Robinson, a superior ensemble player, was the actual star of the evening; but under the right circumstances, Lewis could be inspired to play Page 12  extremely well. He became a symbol of New Orleans jazz, being active until his death in 1969.

Although they did not sound exactly like musicians from Buddy Bolden’s day since they were familiar with swing music, Bunk Johnson and George Lewis served as links to the early days. The music they and other veterans played in New Orleans differed from Dixieland in that the emphasis was much more on ensembles, though there were solos too. The musicianship in classic New Orleans jazz is often not as high quality as in the usual Dixieland groups, with some of the players being occasionally out of tune. The musicians’ expressive qualities are considered more significant than their intonation. If musicians have the spirit and an appealing sound and can play ensembles well, then they will be valued more than a less-emotional virtuoso.

With the rediscovery of Bunk Johnson and George Lewis, and a greater interest in general for New Orleans jazz in the 1940s, a large industry developed. Tourists came to New Orleans hoping to hear fun music, so many clubs opened, often featuring flashy Dixieland that delighted audiences who wanted to hear loud and fast versions of familiar tunes. The aficionados and record collectors who loved the original music were distressed to see a commercial and rather obvious version of Dixieland being considered representative of New Orleans jazz.

Of the newer musicians from the era, clarinetist Pete Fountain and trumpeter Al Hirt became famous. Both were based in New Orleans, with Fountain gaining national exposure while he was featured with the Lawrence Welk Show . The clarinetist, still active into the twenty-first century, could be quite predictable, often sticking to a small repertoire, but always played with enthusiasm and joy. Hirt, whose virtuosity made him a bit overqualified to play Dixieland, had two pop hits in the 1960s but mostly stuck to Dixieland warhorses. Both Fountain and Hirt owned clubs in New Orleans for many years.

The Dukes of Dixieland, featuring trumpeter Fred Assunto and trombonist Frank Assunto, caught on in the 1950s due to a steady stream of records for the Audio Fidelity label. When they signed with Columbia in the 1960s, the Dukes were at their prime, featuring clarinetist Jerry Fuller and a relatively modern rhythm section. Tragically, both of the Assuntos died prematurely from cancer, but they did leave behind many recordings. The current version of the Dukes of Dixieland has no real relation to the original group.

While such white stars as Fountain, Hirt, and the Dukes of Dixieland became famous, it did not seem right that the veteran black musicians did not have a regular place to play. In 1961 that problem was fixed when Preservation Hall opened in New Orleans’ French Quarter. The young tuba player Allan Jaffe ran the hall, and he organized tours by the musicians, who were grouped together as the Preservation Hall Jazz Band. Such players as trumpeters Kid Thomas Valentine, Punch Miller, De De Pierce, and Percy Humphrey; trombonists Jim Robinson, Louis Nelson, and Frank Demond; clarinetists George Lewis, Albert Burbank, and Willie Humphrey; and pianists Billie Pierce, Sweet Emma Page 13  Barrett, and Joseph Robichaux were among the musicians who had the opportunity to spread the joy of New Orleans music around the world. Their playing was far from flawless, but their spirit helped keep the tradition of New Orleans jazz alive. In the twenty-first century after a great deal of turnover, the Preservation Hall Jazz Band still tours regularly, keeping traditional New Orleans jazz alive.